Effect of Host Plant Quality on Parasitoid Ecology

Yıl 2015, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 1, 151 - 161, 01.06.2015

Hilal Tunca

Öz

Parasitoids have a complex realtionships with interspesific and intraspesific species within their environment. Their relationships with host herbivor and host plants have an important place in parasitoid ecology. The host plants have direct and indirect effects on the survival of parasitoids. These effects may vary according to the chemical and morphological properties of the host plant. Chemical and morphological characteristics of a plant determine its quality. Plant quality having a tremendous role for the suitability of host herbivor for parasitoid. In this article, the effects of host plant quality on the performance and behavioural activities of parasitoids have been described

Anahtar Kelimeler

Host plant, Parasitoid, Ecology

Konukçu Bitki Kalitesinin Parazitoit Ekolojisi Üzerine Etkisi

Öz

Parazitoitler, bulundukları çevrede gerek tür içi ve gerek türler arasıyla karmaşık ilişkiler içerisindedirler. Konukçu herbivor ve konukçu bitkilerle olan ilişkileri parazitoit ekolojisinde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Konukçu bitkilerin parazitoitler üzerinde doğrudan ve dolaylı etkileri sözkonusudur. Bu etkiler, bitkilerin sahip olduğu kimyasal ve morfolojik özelliklere göre değişebilmektedir. Bir bitkinin kimyasal ve morfolojik özellikleri onun kalitesini de belirlemektedir. Bitki kalitesi ise konukçu herbivorun, parazitoit için uygunluğu üzerinde sonderece önemli bir role sahiptir. Bu yazıda konukçu bitki kalitesinin parazitoitler üzerindeki etkilerine değinilmiştir

Anahtar Kelimeler

Konukçu bitki, Parazitoit, Ekoloji

Kaynakça

• Abrahamson, W.G., Weis, A.E., 1997. Evolutionary Ecology across Three Trophic Levels: Goldenrods, Gallmakers and Natural Enemies. Princeton Monographs in Population Biology, Princeton University Press. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 37: 141–172.
• Awmack, C.S., Leather, S.R., 2002. Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects. Annu Rev Entomol. 47: 817–44.
• Barbosa, P., Saunders, J.A., Waldvogel, M., 1982. Plantmediated variation in herbivore suitability and parasitoid fitness. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. Insect–Plant Relationships. Pudoc, Wageningen. pp. 63–71.
• Barbosa, P., Saunders, J.A., Kemper, J., Trumbule, R., Olechno, J., Martinat, P., 1986. Plant allelochemicals and insect parasitoids: Effects of nicotine on Cotesia congregata (Say) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Hyposoter annulipes (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). J. Chem. Ecol. 12: 1319–1328.
• Barbosa, P., 1988. In "Novel Aspects of Insect–Plant Interactions" (Barbosa P., Letourneau, D. K., eds.) Wiley, New Yorg. pp 201–209.
• Barbosa, P., Gross, P., Kemper, J., 1991. Influence of plant allelochemicals on the tobacco hornworm and its parasitoid, Cotesia cogregata. Ecology. 72: 1567–1575.
• Barbosa, P., Segarra, A.E., Gross, P., Caldas, A., Ahlstrom, K., Carlson, R.W., Ferguson, D.C., Grissell, E.E., Hodges, R.W., Marsh, P.M., Poole, R.W., Schauff, M.E., Shaw, S.R., Whitfield, J.B. Woodley, N.E., 2001. Differential parasitism of macrolepidopteran herbivores on two deciduous tree species. Ecology. 82: 698–704.
• Beckage, N.E., Riddiford, L.M., 1982. Effects of parasitism by Apanteles congregatus on the endocrine physiology of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 47: 308–322.
• Benrey, B., Denno, R.F., 1997. The slow growth–high mortality hypothesis: A test using the Cabbage Butterfly. Ecology. 78: 987–999.
• Bernal, J.S., Luck, R.F., Morse, J.G., 1998. Sex ratios in field populations of two parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) of Coccus hesperidum L. (Homoptera: Coccidae). Oecologia. 116: 510–518.
• Bernal, J.S., Luck, R.F., Morse, J.G., 1999. Host influences on sex ratio, longevity, and egg load of two Metaphycus species parasitic on soft scales: implications for insectary rearing. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 92: 191–204.
• Bezemer, T.M., Jones, T.H., Knight, K.J., 1998. Long–term effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on populations of the peach potato aphid Myzus persicae and its parasitoid Aphidius matricariae. Oecologia. 116: 128–135.
• Bowers, M.D., 1993. Aposematic Caterpillars: Lifestyles of the Unpalatable and Warningly Colored. In: Caterpillars: Ecological and Evolutionary Constraints on Foraging (Stamp N., Casey T. eds.). Chapman and Hall. pp. 331–371.
• Campadelli, G., Barlotti, T., 1986. Importance of wax in the artificial diet of Galleria mellonella L., a substitute host for the parasite Pseudogonia rufifrons Wied. Bollettino dell'Istituto di Entomologia 'Guido Grandi' della Universita delgi Studi di Bologna. 40: 1–12.
• Campbell, B.C., Duffy, S.S., 1979. Tomatine and parasitic wasps:Potential incompatibility of plant antibiosis with biological control . Science. 20: 700–702.
• Carrillo, D., Peña, J.E., Capinera, J.L., 2008. Effect of host plants on successful parasitism by Haeckeliania sperata (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) on Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) eggs. Environ. Entomol. 37 (6): 1565–1572.
• Chau, A., Mackauer, M., 2001. Host–instar selection in the aphid parasitoid Monoctonus paulensis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae, Aphidiinae): assessing costs and benefits. Can. Entomol. 133: 549–564.
• Clancy, K.M., Price, P.W., 1987. Rapid herbivore growth enhances enemy attack: Sublethal plant defenses remain a paradox. Ecology. 68: (733–0).
• Coley, P.D., Bateman, M.L., Kursar, T.A., 2006. The effects of plant quality on caterpillar growth and defense against natural enemies. Oikos. 115: 219–228.
• Collier, T.R., 1995a. Adding physiological realism to dynamic state variable models of parasitoid host feeding. Evol. Ecol. 9: 217–35.
• Collier, T.R., 1995b. Host feeding, egg maturation, resorption, and longevity in the parasitoid Aphytis melinus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 88: 206–214.
• De Moraes, C.M., Lewis, W.J., Pare, P.W., Alborn, H.T., Tumlinson, J.H., 1998. Herbivore–infested plants selectively attract parasitoids. Nature. 393: 570–573.
• De Moraes, C.M., Mescher, M.C., 2004. Biochemical crypsis in the avoidance of natural enemies by an insect herbivore. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101: 8993–8999.
• Denno, R. F., Larsson, S., Olmstead, K.L., 1990. Role of enemy–free space and plant quality in host–plant selection by willow beetles. Ecology 71: 124–137.
• Dicke, M, Sabelis, M.W., Takabayashi, J., Bruin, J., Posthumus, M.A., 1990. Plant strategies of manipulating predator–prey interactions through allelochemicals: prospects for application in pest control. J. Chem. Ecol. 16: 3091–3118.
• Dicke, M., Baldwin, I.T., 2010. The evolutionary context for herbivore–induced plant volatiles: Beyond the ‘cry for help’. Trends Plant Sci. 15: 167–175.
• Divina, M.A., Jorge, E.P., Duncan, R.E., 2005. Effects of host age, female parasitoid age, and host plant on parasitism of Ceratogramma etiennei (Hym: Trichogrammatidae). Fla. Entomol. 88 (1): 77–82.
• Duffey, S.S., Bloem, K.A., 1986. Plant defense/herbivore/ parasite interactions and biological control, In Ecological theory and IPM practice (Kogan M., ed.,) Wiley, London. pp l35–183.
• Duffey, S.S., Bloem, K.A., Campbell, B.C., 1986. Consequences of sequestration of plant natural products in plant–insect–parasitoid interactions. In "Interactions of Plant Resistance and Parasitoids and Predators of Insects"John Wiley and Sons, New Yorg, pp. 30–60.
• Dyer, L.A., 2002. Yayınlanmamış makale.
• Eijs, I.E.M., Ellers, J., Van Duinen, D.G., 1998. Feeding strategies in drosophilid parasitoids: the impact of natural food resources on energy reserves in females. Ecol. Entomol. 23: 133–138.
• Elsey, K.D., Chaplin, J.F., 1978. Resistance of tobacco introduction 1112 to the tobacco budworm and green peach aphid. J. Econ. Entomol. 71: 723–725.
• English–Loeb, G.M., Brody, A.K., Karban, R., 1993. Host–Plant–Mediated interactions between a generalist folivore and its tachinid parasitoid. J. Anim. Ecol. 62: 465–471.
• Erb, M., Foresti, N., Turlings,T.C.J., 2010. A tritrophic signal that attracts parasitoids to host–damaged plants withstands disruption by non–host herbivores. BMC Plant Biol. 10: 247.
• Fellowes, M.D.E., Masnatta, P., Kraaijeveld, A.R., Godfray, H.C.J., 1998. Pupal parasitoid attack in£uences the relative fitness of Drosophila that have encapsulated larval parasitoids. Ecol. Entomol. 23: 281–284.
• Fox, L.R., Letourneau, D.K., Eisenbach. J., Nouhuys, S.V., 1990. Parasitism rates and sex ratios of a parasitoid wasp: effects of herbivore and plant quality. Oecologia. 83: 414–419.
• Gauld, I.D., Gaston, K.J., Janzen, D.H., 1992. Plant allelochemicals, tritrophic interactions and the anomalous diversity of tropical parasitoids: the "nasty" host hypothesis. Oikos. 65: 353–357.
• Gauld, I.D., Gaston, K.J., 1994. The taste of enemy free space: parasitoids and nasty hosts. In: Parasitoid Community Ecology, (Hawkins, B.A., Sheehan, W. eds). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 279–299.
• Gentry, G.L., Dyer, L.A., 2002. On the conditional nature of neotropical caterpillar defenses against their natural enemies. Ecology. 83: 3108–3119.
• Godfray, H.C.J., 1994. Parasitoids: Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology. Princeton University Press, 488 pp.
• Gunasena, G.H., Vinson, S.B., Williams, H.J., Stipanovic, R.D., 1989. Development and survival of the endoparasitoid Campoletis sonorensis (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) reared from gossypol exposed Heliothis virescens (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Environ. Entomol. 18: 886–891.
• Harvey, J.A., 2000. Dynamic effects of parasitism by an endoparasitoid wasp on the development of two host species: implications for host quality and parasitoid fitness. Ecol. Entomol. 25 (3): 267–278.
• Harvey, J.A., Harvey, I.F., Thompson, D.J., 1994. Flexible larval growth allows use of a range of host sizes by a parasitoid wasp. Ecology. 75: 1420–1428.
• Harvey, J.A., Harvey, I.F., Thompson, D.J., 1995. The effect of host nutrition on growth and development of the parasitoid wasp Venturia canescens. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 75: 213–220.
• Hassell, M.P., 2000. The Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Insect Host–Parasitoid Interactions. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Haukioja, E., Neuvonen, S., 1985. Induced long–term resistance of birch foliage against defoliators: defensive or incidental? Ecology. 66: 1303–1308.
• Havill, N.P., Raffa, K.F., 2000. Compound effects of induced plant responses on insect herbivores and parasitoids: Implications for tritrophic interactions. Ecol. Entomol. 25: 171–179.
• Hawkins, B.A., Marino, P.C., 1997. The colonization of native phytophagous insects in North America by exotic parasitoids. Oecologia. 112: 566–571.
• Heimpel, G.E., Mangel, M., Rosenheim, J.A., 1998. Effects of Time and Egg–Limitation on Lifetime Reproductive Success of a Parasitoid in the Field. Am. Natur. 152: 273–289.
• Heimpel, G.E., Rosenheim, J.A., Kattari, D., 1997. Adult feding and lifetime reproductive success in the parasitoid Aphytis melinus. Entomol. Exp. et App. 83: 305–315.
• Heimpel, G.E., Rosenheim, J.A. 1995. Dynamichost feeding by the parasitoid Aphytis melinus: the balance between current and future reproduction. J. Anim. Ecol. 64: 153–167.
• Heimpel, G.E., Rosenheim, J.A., Mangel, M., 1996. Egg limitation, host quality and dynamic behavior by a parasitoid in the field. Ecology. 77: 2410–2420.
• Hemerik, L., Harvey, J., 1999. Flexible larval development and the timing of destructive feeding by a solitary endoparasitoid: an optimal foraging problem in evolutionary perspective. Ecol. Entomol. 24: 308–315.
• Hochberg, M.E., Hawkins, B.A., 1992. Refuges as a predictor of parasitoid diversity. Science. 255: 973–976.
• Hochberg, M.E., Hawkins, B.A., 1993. Predicting parasitoid species richness. Am. Natur. 142: 671–693.
• Hochberg, M.E., Holt, R.D., 1995. Refuges evolution and the population dynamics of couple host–parasitoid associations. Evol. Ecol. 9: 633–661.
• Hochberg, M.E., Ives, A.R., 2000. Introduction in. Parasitoid Population Biology (Hochberg M. E., Ives, A. R. eds). Princeton University Press, Princeton. pp 3–14.
• Hunter, M.D., 2002. A breath of fresh air: beyond laboratory studies of plant volatile–natural enemy interactions. Agr. Forest Entomol. 4: 81–86.
• Hunter, M.D., 2003. Effects plant quality on the population ecology of parasitoids. Agr. Forest Entomol. 5: 1–8.
• Hunter, M.D., Price, P.W., 1992. Playing shutes and ladders heterogeneity and the relative roles of bottom–up and top–down forces in natural communities. Ecology. 73: 724–732.
• Hunter, M.D., Price, P.W., 1998. Cycles in insect populations: Delayed density dependence or exogenous driving variables? Ecol. Entomol. 23: 216–222.
• Jacob, H.S., Evans, E.W., 1998. Effects of Sugar Spray and Aphid Honeydew on Field Populations of the Parasitoid Bathyplectes curculionis (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Biol. Control. 27 (6): 1563–1568.
• Jervis, M.A., Heimpel, G.E., Ferns, P.N., 2001. Life–history strategies in parasitoid wasps: a comparative analysis of ‘ovigeny’. J. Anim. Ecol. 70: 442–458.
• Karban, R., English–Loeb, G., 1997. Tachinid parasitoids affect host plant choice by caterpillars to increase caterpillar survival. Ecology. 78: 603–611.
• Kester, K.M., Barbosa, P., 1991. Post–emergence learning in the insect parasitoid, Cotesia congregata (Say) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). J. Insect Behav. 4: 727–742.
• King, B.H., 2002. Breeding strategies in females of the parasitod wasp Spalangia endius: effects of mating status and body size. J. Insect Behav. 15: 181–193.
• Lill, J.T., Marquis, R.J., Ricklefs, R.E., 2002. Host plants influence parasitism of forest caterpillars. Nature. 417 (6885): 170–173.
• Lill, J.T., Marquis, R.J., 2001. The effects of leaf quality on herbivore performance and attack from natural enemies. Oecologia. 126: 418–428.
• Mallampalli, N., Barbosa, P., Weinges, K., 1996. Effects of condensed tannins and catalpol on growth and development of Compsilura concinnata (Diptera: Tachinidae) reared in gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 31: 289–300.
• McCall, P.J., Turlings, T.C., Lewis, W.J., Tumlinson, J.H., 1993. Role of plant volatiles in host location by the specialist parasitoid Microplitis croceipes cresson (Braconidae: Hymenoptera). J. Insect Behav. 6: 625–639.
• McDougal, L.C., Philogene, B.J.R., Amason, J.T., Donskov, N., 1988. Comparative effects of two plant secondary metabolites on host–parasitoid association. J. Chem. Ecol. 14: 1239–1252.
• Moon, D.C., Rossi, A.M., Stiling, P., 2000. The effects of abiotically induced changes in host plant quality (and morphology) on a salt marsh planthopper and its parasitoid. Ecol. Entomol. 25: 325–331.
• Moon, D.C., Stiling, P., 2000. Relative importance of abiotically induced direct and indirect effects on a salt– marsh herbivore. Ecology. 81: 470–481.
• Muldrew, J.A., 1953. The natural immunity of the larch sawfly (Peristiphora ericfsonii) (Htg) to the introduced parasite Mesoleius tenthredinis Morley, in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Canad. J. Zool. 31: 313–32.
• Murdoch, W.W., Briggs, C.J., Nisbet, R.M., 1997. Dynamical effects of host–size and parasitoid state dependent attacks by parasitoids. J. Anim. Ecol. 66: 542–556.
• Murray, D.A.H., Rynne, K.P., 1994. Effect of host plant on parasitism of Helicoverpa armigera (Lep.: Noctuidae) by Microplitis demolitor (Hym.: Braconidae) Entomophaga. 39: (3–4): 251–255.
• Obrycki, J.J., Tauber, M.J., Tingey, W.M., 1983. Predator and parasitoid interaction with aphid–resistant potatoes to reduce aphid densities: A two–year field study. J. Econ. Entomol. 76: 456–462.
• Ohmart, C.P., Stewart, L.G., Thomas, J.R., 1985. Effects of food quality, particularly nitrogen concentrations, of Eucalyptus blakelyi foliage on thc growth of Paropsis atomaria larvae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Oecologia (Berlin). 65: 543–549.
• Pandey, S., Singh, R., 1999. Host size induced variation in progeny sex ratio of an aphid parasitoid Lysiphlebia mirzai. Entomol. Exp. et App. 90: 61–67.
• Poelman, E.H., Bruinsma, M., Zhu, F., Weldegergis, B.T., Boursault, A.E., Jongema, Y., 2012. Hyperparasitoids Use Herbivore–Induced Plant Volatiles to Locate Their Parasitoid Host. PLoS Biol 10 (11): e1001435.
• Powell, W., Pennacchio, F., Poppy, G.M., Tremblay, E., 1998. Strategies involved in the location of hosts by the parasitoid Aphidius ervi Haliday (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae). Biol. Control 11: 104–112.
• Price, P.W., 1997. Insect Ecology. 3 rd edn. Wiley, New Yorg.
• Price, P.W., Bouton, C.E., Gross, P., McPheron, B.A., Thompson, J.N., Weis, A.E., 1980. Interactions among three trophic levels: influence of plant on interactions between insect herbivor and natural enemies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Sust. 11: 41–65.
• Reitz, S.R., Trumble, J.T., 1997. Effects of linear furanocoumarins on the herbivore Spodoptera exigua and parasitoid Archytas marmoratus: host quality and parasitoid success. Entomol. Exp. et Appl. 84: 9–16.
• Rivero, A., Giron, D., Casas, J., 2001. Lifetime allocation of juvenile and adult nutritional resources to egg production in a holometabolous insect. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, B. 268: 1231–1237.
• Rosenthal, G.A., Berenbaum, M.R., 1991. Herbivores: their interactions with secondary plant metabolites, 2nd ed. Academic Press.
• Rossiter, M.C., 1987. Use of a Secondary host by non–Outbreak populations of the Gypsy Moth. Ecology 68: 857–868.
• Roth, S., Lindroth, R.L., 1995. Elevated atmospheric CO2: Effects on phytochemistry, insect performance and insect–parasitoid interaction. Glob. Chang. Biol. 1: 173–182.
• Roth, S., Knorr, C., Lindroth, R.L., 1997. Dietary phenolics affects performance of the gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) and its parasitoid Cotesia melanoscela (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Environ. Entomol. 26: 668.
• Sabelis, M.W., Janssen, A., Kant, M.R., 2001. The enemy of my enemy is my ally. Science 291: 2104–2105.
• Salt, G., 1964. The Ichneumonid parasit Nemeritis canescens (Gravenhorst) in relation to the wax moth Galleria mellonella L. Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. 116 (1): 1–4.
• Schowalter, T.D., 2000. Insect Ecology. An Ecosystem Approach. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
• Simberloff, D., Stiling, P., 1996a. How Risky is Biological Control?. Ecology. 77 (7): 1965–1974.
• Simberloff, D., Stiling, P., 1996b. Risks of Species Introduced For Biological Control. Biol. Conserv. 78: 185–192.
• Sime, K., 2002. Chemical defence of Battus philenor larvae against attack by the parasitoid Trogus pennator. Ecol. Entomol. 27: 337–345.
• Sime, K.R., Brower, A.V.Z., 1998. Explaining the latitudinal gradient anomaly in ichneumonid species–richness: evidence from butterflies. J. Anim. Ecol. 67: 387–399.
• Singer, M.S., 2001. Determinants of polyphagy by a wooly bear caterpillar: a test of the physiological efficiency hypothesis. Oikos. 93: 194–204.
• Singer, M.S., Stireman, J.O., 2003. Does anti–parasitoid defense explain host–plant selection by a polyphagous caterpillar? Oikos. 100: 554–562.
• Singer, M.S., Stireman, J.O., 2005. The tri–trophic niche concept and adaptive radiation of phyophagous insects. Ecology Letters: 8: 1247–1255.
• Speight, M.R., Hunter, M.D., Watt, A.D., 1999. Ecology of Insects: Concepts and Applications. Blacwell Science, Oxford.
• Stacey, D.A., Fellowes, M.D.E., 2002. Influence of elevated CO2 on interspecific interactions at higher trophic levels. Glob. Change Biol. 8: 668–678.
• Steınberg, S., Dicke, M., Vet, L.E.M., 1993. Relative importance of infochemicals from first and second trophic level in long range host location by the larval parasitoid Coiesia glomerata. J. Chem. Ecol. 19 (1): 47– 60.
• Stiling, P., Rossi, A.M., Hungate, B., Dijkstra, P., Hinkle, C.R., Knott, W.M., Drake, B., 1999. Decreased leaf– iner abundance in elevated CO2: Reduced leaf quality and increased parasitoid attack. Ecol. Appl. 9: 240–244.
• Stiling, P., Cattel, M., Moon, D.C., Rossi, A., Hungate, B.A., Hymus, G., Drake, B., 2002. Eleveated atmospheric CO2 lowers herbivore abundance, but increases leaf abscission rates. Glob. Chang. Biol. 8: 658–667.
• Stowe, M.K., Turlings, T.C.J., Loughrin, J.H., Lewis W.J., Tumlinson, J.H., 1995. The chemistry of eavesdropping, alarm, and deceit. Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. 92: 23–28.
• Sumerford, D.V., Abrahamson, W.G., Weis, A.E., 2000. The effects of drought on the Solidago altissima‐ Eurosta solidaginis‐natural enemy complex: population dynamics, local extirpations, and the measures of selection intensity on gall size. Oecologia. 122: 240–248.
• Teder, T., Tammaru, T., 2002. Cascading effects of variation in plant vigour on the relative performance of insect herbivores and their parasitoids. Ecol. Entomol. 27: 94–104.
• Thurston, R., Fox, P.M., 1972. Inhibition by nicotine of emergence of Apanteles congregatus from its host, the tobacco hornworm . Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 65: 547–550.
• Treacy, M.F., Benedict, J.H., Segers, J.C., Morrison, R.K., Lopez, J.D., 1986. Role of cotton trichome density in bollworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) egg parasitism. Environ. Entomol. 15: 365–368.
• Turlings, T.C.J., Benrey, B., 1998. The effects of plant metabolites on the behavior and development of parasitic wasps. Écoscience. 5: 321–333.
• Van den Bosch, R., 1964. Encapsulation of the eggs of Bathyplectes curculionis (Thomson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in larvae of Hypera brunneipennis (Boheman) and Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J. Ins. Path. 6: 343–367.
• Van Emden, H.F., 1995. Host plant–aphidophaga interactions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 52: 3–11.
• Van Huis, A., De Rooy, M., 1998. The effect of leguminous plant species on Callosobruchus macultatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) and its egg parasitoid Uscana lariophaga (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 88: 93–99.
• Van Loon, J.J.A., de Boer, J.G., Dicke, M., 2000. Parasitoid–plant mutualism: parasitoid attack of herbivore increases plant reproduction. Entomol. Exp. et Appl. 97: 219–227.
• Vet, L.E.M., Dicke, M., 1992. Ecology of Infochemical Use by Natural Enemies in a Tritrophic Context.
• Vinson, S.B., Elzen, G.W., Williams, H.J., 1987. The influence of volatile plant allelochemicals on the third trophic level (parasitoids) and their herbivorous host. In: Insects–plants (V. Labeyrie, G. Fabres, Lachaise, T. D. eds). Junk Publ. Dordrecht, 540 pp.
• Vinson, S.B., Barbosa, P., 1987. Interrelationships of nutritional ecology of parasitoids, p. 673–695. In F. Slansky & J.G. Rodriguez (ed.), Nutritional ecology of Insects, Mites, and Spiders and Related Invertebrates. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 880 p.
• Wang, C., Yang, O., Zhou, M., 1997. Effects of gossypol on growht of the cotton bollworm and development of its parasitoid Campoletis chlorideae. Entomol. Sin. 4: 182–188.
• Weller, S., Jacobson, N., Conner, W., 1999. The evolution of chemical defenses and mating systems in tiger moths (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 68: 557–578.
• West, S.A., Flanagan, K.E., Godfray, H.C.J., 2001. Variable host quality, life–history invariants, and the reproductive strategy of a parasitoid wasp that produces single sex clutches. Behav. Ecol. 12: 577–583.
• Zaviezo, T., Mills, N.J., 2001. The response of Hyssopus pallidus to hosts previously parasitized by Ascogaster quadridentata: heterospecific discrimination and host quality. Ecol. Entomol. 26: 91–99.