SWEETENERS

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 3 Sayı: 1, 19 - 33, 12.07.2019

Ayşenur İşgören Sıdıka Sungur

Öz

Sugar is an
important part  of our diet that we
consume with natural foods as fruits, vegetables, and dairy products.It  is directly related with our habits and food
and beverages industry as well. Recently, 
overweight  and obesity incidences
have  shown  increase worldwide ,  with the increase in sugar consumption in
adults and children. Several scientific studies have shown  that excess consumption of sugar has been
associated with various health problems. World Health Organization (WHO)
classifies sugars as free and intrinsic. İntrinsic sugars  are those 
incorporated within fruits, vegetables and  dairy products , whereas free sugars are
monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by manufacturers
or consumers. Excluding sugars naturally found in foods, such as fruits or
dairy products, WHO  recommended that
sugar consumption should be less than 10% of total calorie  intake for adults and children. Sweeteners
have become popular to a number of people having  diabetes or 
overweight problems. Because of their lower glycemic index and calorie,
sweeteners  are consumed as an
alternative to sugars.They are classified as 
natural sweeteners, sugar alcohols and artificial sweeteners.Natural
sweeteners are obtained from various parts of  plants . Polyols are carbohydrate derivatives  occuring 
naturally in fruits and vegetables, but 
are  also chemically manufactured  from mono and disaccharides. Artificial
sweeteners have very intense sweet taste, but very low or zero  glycemic index and calorie. However,
scientific studies have shown that  the
effect of  artificial sweeteners on our health
is not clear. So,  except diabetic
patients , it is better  to consume  traditional natural sweeteners  than artificial ones  avoiding excess consumption. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Sweetener, natural, artificial, health

TATLANDIRICILAR

Öz

Şeker,
doğal olarak bulunduğu meyveler, sebzeler ve süt ürünleri ile tükettiğimiz
önemli bir besin maddesidir.Ayrıca, alışkanlıklarımızla ve besin ve meşrubat
endüstrisi ile de doğrudan ilgilidir. Son zamanlarda dünyada yükselen şeker
tüketimi ile birlikte  çocuklarda ve
yetişkinlerde aşırı kilo ve obezite artış göstermektedir.Birçok  bilimsel araştırma aşırı şeker tüketiminin
çeşitli sağlık sorunlarına yol açtığını bildirmektedir. Dünya sağlık örgütü
(DSÖ), şekerleri serbest ve intrinsik olarak sınıflandırmaktadır. İntrinsik
şekerler meyvelerde , sebzelerde ve  süt
ürünlerinde doğal olarak bulunan, serbest şekerler ise besinlere ve içeceklere
üreticiler ya da  kullanıcılar tarafından
eklenen monosakkaritler ve disakkaritlerdir. DSÖ, yetişkinler ve çocuklarda
şeker tüketiminin toplam enerji alımının % 10’unun altına düşürülmesini
önermektedir. Diyabet hastaları ve  kilo
vermek isteyen birçok kişi tatlandırıcılara yönelmiştir. Tatlandırıcılar,
glisemik indeks ve kalori değerlerinin düşük olması nedeniyle şekere alternatif
olarak tüketilmektedirler. Tatlandırıcılar; doğal tatlandırıcılar, şeker
alkolleri ve yapay tatlandırıcılar olarak sınıflandırılırlar. Doğal
tatlandırıcılar,bitkilerin çeşitli bölümlerinden elde edilirler. Şeker
alkolleri, doğal olarak meyvelerde ve sebzelerde bulunan karbohidrat
türevleridir, ancak  mono ve
disakkaritlerden kimyasal olarak da 
üretilmektedirler.Yapay tatlandırıcıların tatlandırma gücü yüksek,
kalorisi ve glisemik indeksi sıfıra yakındır. Ancak,  bilimsel çalışmalar sağlığımıza olan etkileri
konusunda netlik olmadığını göstermektedir. Bu durumda, diyabet sorunu olmayan
bireylerin yapay tatlandırıcılar yerine aşırı tüketmemek koşulu geleneksel
doğal tatlandırıcıları  tercih etmesi
daha iyi olacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Tatlandırıcı, yapay, doğal, sağlık

Kaynakça

• 1. World Health Organization.Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Geneva World Health Organization; 2015 http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/. Published 2015. Erişim 11.10.2018. 2. Malik,V.S., Pan, A., Willett,W.C., and Hu, F. B., Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr., 2013; 98:1084–1102. 3. Bucher Della Torre, S., Keller, A., Laure Depeyre, J., Kruseman, M., Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Obesity Risk in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Analysis on How Methodological Quality May Influence Conclusions. J Acad Nutr Diet.,2016; 116 :638-65 . 4. Mooradian, A.D.,Smith,M.,Tokuda, M.,The role of artificial and natural sweeteners in reducing the consumption of table sugar. A narrative review. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 2017;18:1-8. 5. Rippe,J.M., Sievenpiper, J.L., Le,K, ,White,J.S., Clemens,R., ve ark., What is the appropriate upper limit for added sugars consumption? Nutrition Reviews, 2017 ; 75:18–36. 6. Yang, Q., Zhang, Z, Gregg, E.W., Flanders, ve ark.,Added sugar intake and cardiovascular diseases mortality among US adults. JAMA Intern. Med.,2014; 174: 516-524. 7. Brown, L.M., Swanson, C.A., Gridley,G., Swanson, G.M.,ve ark., Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus: role of obesity and diet. J Natl Cancer Inst.,1995; 87:104-109 . 8. Cheng, K.K., Sharp, L ., McKinney, P.A. , Logan, R.F.A., ve ark., A case–control study of oesophageal adenocarcinoma in women: a preventable disease. British Journal of Cancer,2000; 83: 127–132. 9. Vainio, H., Kaaks, R., Bianchini, F., Weight control and physical activity in cancer prevention: international evaluation of the evidence. Eur J Cancer Prev.,2002; Suppl 2: S94-100. 10. Fagherazzi, G.,Vilier, A.,Saes Sartorelli , D.,Lajous, M.,Balkau, B., ve ark., Consumption of artificially and sugar sweetened beverages and incident type 2 diabetes. Amer.J.Clin.Nutr., 2013;97:517-23. 11. Ludwig,D.S., Peterson, K.E., Gortmaker, S.L., Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet., 2001; 357: 505-508 . 12. Schulze, M.B., Manson, J.E, Ludwig, D.S., Colditz, G.A., Stampfer, M.J.,ve ark., Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women. JAMA,2004; 292: 927-934. 13. Moore, J.B.,Fielding, B.A., Sugar and metabolic health: is there still a debate? Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care,2016; 19: 303–309. 14. Sheiham, A., James W.P., A reappraisal of the quantitative relationship between sugar intake and dental caries: the need for new criteria for developing goals for sugar intake. BMC Public Health. 2014; 14:863. 15. Lustig R.H.,Schmidt L.A.,Brindis C.D., The toxic truth about sugar. Nature,2012;482:27-29. 16. WHO, Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation.WHO Technical Report Series, No. 916. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_916.pdf, Erişim: 26 ekim 2018. 17. Jenkins, D.J., Wolever, T.M., Taylor, R.H., Barker H, Fielden H,ve ark., Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1981; 34:362-366. 18. Thiakavathy, S., Pandeeswari, N.K., The glycemic index-A science based diet, Int.J.Pharm. Med. and Bio.Sc., 2012;1: 259-265. 19. Güler M.S.,Bilici S., Besinin içeriği, işleme ve pişirme yöntemlerinin glisemik indeks üzerine etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimler Dergisi, 2017; 2:1-12. 20. Jenkins, D., Kendall, C., McKeown-Eyssen, G., Josse, R. Silverberg,J., ve ark,. Effect of a low glycemic index or a high cereal fiber diet on type 2 diabetes. A randomized trial. JAMA.,2008; 300: 2742-2753. 21. Carocho, M., Morales, P. ve Ferreira, I.“Sweeteners as Food Additives in the XXI Century: A review of what is known and what is to come. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 2017;107: 302-317. 22. Edwards,C.H., Rossi, M.,Corpe, C.R., Butterworth, P.J.,The role of sugars and sweeteners in food, diet and health:Alternatives for future. Trends in Food Sci and Technol,2016 ;56:158-166. 23. Sweeteners http://www.: nutrientsreview.com/articles/sweeteners.html Erişim : 12.11.2018 24. Rutledge, A.C., Adeli, K., Fructose and the metabolic syndrome: pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms. Nutr Rev,. 2007; 65:S13-S23. 25. Stanhope, K.L., Schwartz, J.M., Havel, P.J., Adverse metabolic effects of dietary fructose: results from the recent epidemiological, clinical and mechanistic studies. Curr. Opin. Lipidol., 2013; 24:198-206. 26. Ferder, L.,Ferder, M.D., Inserra, F., The role of high-fructose corn syrup in metabolic syndrome and hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep,12,105-112(2010) 27. Johnson, R.J., Segal, M.S., Sautin, Y., Nakagawa, T. ve ark. Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr.,2007; 86 :899-906 . 28. Bray, G.A., Nielsen, S.J. ve Popkin, B.M., Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am. J Clin.Nutr.,2004; 79 :37-43. 29. Nils ve Georg Asp, N., Dietary carbonhydrates:classification by chemistry and physiology. Food Che-mistry,1996; 57: 9-14 (1996) . 30. Souksu,H., Yılmaz,K.,Demir,Ö.F., Kahramanmaraş Türkoğlu topraklarında Stevia Rebaudiana Bertoni (şeker bitkisi)’nin yetiştirilmesi ve azot ihtiyacının belirlenmesi. Çukurova J. Agric. Food Sci.,2016;31:109-114. 31. Yıldırım, K., Stevia Rebaudiana Bertoni bitkisinin in vitro üretim potansiyeli ve tokat şartlarına adaptasyonu . Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi ,2017; 34 : 238-251. 32. [SCF] Scientific Committee on Food.1999.Opinion on stevioside as a sweetener, SCF/CS/ADD/EDUL/167 final. 1999 June17.Brussels: SCF, U.S. Erişim : 06.10.2018. 33. FDA,Import alert 45-06,18.09.2018 https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cms.../importalert_119.html Erişim : 05.10.2018 34. [ADA] American Diatetic Assn. 2004. Position of the American Dietetic Assn.: use of nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners. J Am Diet Assoc., 104:255–75. 35. Shannon, M., Rehfeld, A., Frizzell, C.,Livingstone, C.,McGonagle, C., ve ark., İn vitro bioassay investigations of the endocrine distrupting potential of steviol glycosides and their metabolite steviol, components of the natural sweetener Stevia. Mol.Cell.Endocrinol., 2016;42:65-72. 36. Chan, P., Tomlinson, B., Chen, Y.J., Liu, J.C., Hsieh, M.H., ve ark., A double-blind placebo-controlled study of the effectiveness and tolerability of oral stevioside in human hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol,, 2000; 50:215-220. 37. Pawar, R.S., Krynitsky, A.J., Rader,J.I., Sweeteners from plants—with emphasis on Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni) and Siraitia grosvenorii (Swingle). Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 2013 ; 405:4397-4407. 38. EFSA, 2011.Scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of neohesperidine dihydrochalcone when used as a sensory additive for piglets, pigs for fattening, calves for rearing,lambs for rearing and fattening , dairy sheep, ewes for reproduction , salmonids and dogs.EFSA J, 9,2444. 39. Chattopadhyay, S., Raychaudhuri,U., Chahraborty, R., Artificial sweeteners-a review. J Food Sci.Technol., 2014;51:611-621. 40. Shankar, P.,Ahuja, S.,Sriram,K., Non-nutritive sweeteners: review and update. Nutrition, 2013;29:1293–1299. 41. Menavuvu, B.T., Poonperm ,W., Leang, K., Noguchi, N., Okada, H., ve ark., Efficient biosynthesis of D-allose from D-psicose by cross- linked recombinant L-rhamnose Isomerase: Separation of product by ethanol crystallization. J Biosci Bioeng, 2006;101:340–345. 42. Sun, Y., Hayakawa ,S., Jiang, H., Ogawa, M., Izumori, K., Rheological characteristics of heat-induced custard pudding gels with high antioxidative activity. Biosci Biotech Biochem., 2006 ; 70:2859–2867. 43. Sun, Y., Hayakawa, S., Ogawa, M., Izumori, K., Antioxidant properties of custard pudding dessert containing rare hexose. D-psicose. Food Control, 2007;18:220–227. 44. Mellado-Mojica,E., Seeram,,N.P., Lopez, M.G., Comparative analysis of maple syrups and natural sweeteners: Carbohydrates composition and classification (differentiation) by HPAEC-PAD and FTIR spectroscopy-chemometrics, Journal of Food composition and Analysis,2016;52:1-8. 45. Stuckel,J.G., Low,N.H., The chemical composition of 80 pure maple syrup samples produced in North America. Food Research International,1996; 29:373-379. 46. FDA, Additional Information about High-Intensity Sweeteners Permitted for Use in Food in the United States. https://fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/.../ucm397725.htm Erişim : 01.11.2018 47. Kroger,M., Meister,K., Kava,R., Low-calorie sweeteners and other sugar substitutes: A review of the safety ıssues. Compr. Rev. Food Sci., 2006;5:35–47. 48. Mahian,R.A., Hakimzadeh,V., Sugar alcohols: A review. International Journal of Pharm Tech Rese-arch,2016;9:407-423. 49. Lemos,B.S., Maria-Luz Fernandez,M.L.,Santos, M.E.S.M., Effects of consuming sweeteners on metabolic disorders,J Nutr.,Food Technol,2018;1:34-38. 50. Bellisle, F, Drewnowski, A., Intense sweeteners, energy intake and the control of body weight. Eur J Clin Nutr,. 2007 ;61:691-700. 51. Fowler, S.P.G. , Low-calorie sweetener use and energy balance: Results from experimental studies in animals, and large-scale prospective studies in humans.Physiol Behav. 2016;164:517-523. 52. Pepino, M.Y.,Metabolic effects of nonnutritive sweeteners. Physiol Behav.,2015;152:450-455. 53. Fagherazzi,G., Gusto, G., Affret, A., Mancini, F.R., Dow, C., ve ark., Chronic consumption of artificial sweetener in packets or tablets and type 2 diabetes risk:Evidence from the E3N-European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition study. Ann Nutr Metab., 2017;70:51-58. 54. de Koning,L., Malik,V.S., Rimm,E.B., Willett,W.C., Frank B ve ark., Sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Am J Clin Nutr., 2011 ; 93: 1321–1327. 55. Suez, J., Korem,T., Zeevi, D., Zilberman-Schapira, G., Thaiss, C.A., ve ark., Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature, 2014; 514: 181–186. 56. Nettleton, J.A., Lutsey, P.L., Wang, Y.,Lima, J.A.,Michos, E.D., ve ark., Diet soda intake and risk of incident metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes in the multi- ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Diabetes care,2009;32:688-694. 57. Duffey, K.J.,Steffen, L.M.,Van Horn, L.,Jacobs, D.R.,Popkin, B.M. Diettary patterns matter:diet bavereages and cardiometabolic risks in the longitudinal coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDİA) study. Am J Clin Nutr.,2012; 95:909-915. 58. de Koning, L, Malik, V.S., Kellogg, M.D., Rimm, E.B.,Willett, W.C., ve ark., Sweetened beverage consumption, incident coronary heart disease and biomarkers of risk in men. Circulation,2012;125:1735-1741. 59. Fung, T.T., Malik, V., Rexrode, K.M., Manson, J.E., Willett, W.C., Hu, F.B., Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Amer.J.Clin.Nutr., 2009;89: 1037-1042. 60. Lin, J., Curhan, G.C., Associations of sugar and artificially sweetened soda with albuminuria and kidney function decline in women. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol., 2011;6:160-166. 61. Magnuson,B.A., Burdock,G.A., Doull, J., Kroes, R.M., Marsh, G.M.,ve ark., Aspartame: A safety evaluation based on current use levels, regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological studies. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2008 ;3:629-727. 62. U.S.Food and Drug Administration. Aspartame: Commisioner’s final decision.Federal Registry. 1981;46:38285-38308 63. [USFDA] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1983. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption: aspartame. Final rule. Fed Reg 48:31376–31382. 64. Leon, A.S,, Hunninghake, D.B., Bell, C., Rassin, D.K., Tephly, T.R., Safety of long-term large doses of aspartame. Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:2318-24. 65. Okasha,E.F., Effect of long-term administration of aspartame on the ultrastructure of sciatic nerve. J.Micro. Ultrastuct., 2016;4:175-183. 66. Saleh,A.A.S., Synergistic effect of N-acetyl cysteine and folic acid against aspartame induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Int. J.Adv.Res.,2014; 5:363-373. 67. Mackey,S., Berlin C.M.J., Effect of dietary aspartame on plasma concentrations of phenylalanine and tyrosine in normal and homozygous phenylketonuric patients.Clin Pediatr, 1992;31, 394-399. 68. Swithers, S.E., Martin, A.A., Davidson, T.L., High-intensity sweeteners and energy balance. Physiol Behav., 2010 ;100:55-62. 69. Artificial sweeteners and cancer. National Cancer Institute https:/www.cancer.gov/topics /factsheets/artificial-sweeteners-fact… Erişim: 07.11.2018 70. Bosetti, C., Gallus, S., Talamini, R., Montella M, Franceschi S, Negri E, et al.Artificial sweeteners and the risk of gastric, pancreatic, and endometrial cancers in Italy. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev., 2009;18:2235–2238. 71. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Food guidance for industry: frequently asked questions about GRAS. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. http://www.fda.gov/Food/Guidance Compliance Regulatory Information/GuidanceDocuments. Erişim : 07.11.2018. 72. Clauss, K., Jensen, H., Cycloadditionen von halogensulfonylisocyanaten an acetylene. Tetrahedron Lett ., 1970;11:119–122. 73. [USFDA] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1988. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption; acesulfame potassium. Final rule. Fed Reg 53:28379–28383. 74. [USFDA] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2003. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption; acesulfame potassium. Final rule. Fed Reg 68:75411–75413. 75. Bopp B.A., Sonders R.C., Kesterson, J.W., Toxicological aspects of cyclamate and cyclohexylamine. Crit Rev Toxicol., 1986;16:213–306 76. [USFDA] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1998. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption: sucralose. Final rule. Fed Reg 63:16417–16433. 77. [USFDA] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1999. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption: sucralose, Final rule. Fed Reg 64:43908–43909. 78. US Food and Drug Administration 2002. Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption;Neotame. Fed Reg 67:45300–45310. 79. [JFECFA] Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. 2004. Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Neotame. WHO Food Additives Series 52. 80. Kidd G., Devorak, J., Trehalose is a sweet target for agrobiotech. Biotechnol.,1994; 12:1328–1329. 81. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Additional information about high intensity sweeteners permitted for use in food in the United States. http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm397725.htm#Advantame. Erişim : 05.10.2018. 82. Scientific Opinion on the safety of advantame for the proposed uses as a food additive. EFSA J., 2013;11: 3301. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/3301 Erişim : 05.11.2018.