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Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 9 Sayı: 2, 157 - 168, 30.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886

Öz

The aim of this research study is to analyze and compare the factors affecting the working capital investment levels of lodging companies in both developed and emerging countries. To this end, the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM), one of the dynamic panel data analysis methods, was employed in testing the models, contingent upon the data compatibility. In the research study, the annual financial data of 152 lodging companies located in the top 25 countries with the highest tourism revenues over the period 2011-2019 were analyzed by categorizing them into groups by the status of being developed and emerging countries. As a result of the analysis of the factors affecting the level of working capital, it was observed that the factors affecting working capital differed between developed and emerging countries. Total leverage negatively affects the working capital investment levels of the lodging companies in developed countries, whereas it positively affects the working capital investment levels of the lodging companies in emerging countries. Moreover, the impacts of firm size and operating cash flow on working capital vary by the development level of the countries.

Destekleyen Kurum

Mersin University

Proje Numarası

2017-2-TP3-2656

Teşekkür

Thanks to Mersin University Scientific Research Projects Unit for supporting this research.

Kaynakça

  • Abbadi, S. M., & Abbadi, R. T. (2013). The determinants of working capital requirements in Palestinian industrial corporations. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 5(1), 65-75. https://doi:10.5539/ijef.v5n1p65 google scholar
  • Akinlo, O. O. (2012). Determinants of working capital requirements in selected quoted companies in Nigeria. Journal of African Business, 13(1), 40-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2012.657951 google scholar
  • Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277-297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968 google scholar
  • Arellano, M. & Bover, O. (1995) “Another look at the Instrumental Variable Estimation of Error-Components Models”, Journal of Economet-rics,68(1): 29-51. google scholar
  • Azami, Z., & Tabar, F. J. (2016). Investigating the factors affecting working capital of companies using the generalized method of moments. Bulletin de la Societe Royale des Sciences de Liege, 85(1), 1402-1415. https://doi.org/10.25518/0037-9565.6143 google scholar
  • Banos-Caballero, S., Garrfa-Teruel, P. J., & Martmez-Solano, P (2010). Working capital management in SMEs. Accounting & Finance, 50(3), 511-527. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-629X.2009.00331.x google scholar
  • Bansal, S., & Khosla, D. (2015). Working capital management of hotel industry in India: An analysis. International Journal of Research, 2, 442-453. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3458350. google scholar
  • Blundell, R., & Bond, S. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8 google scholar
  • Chiou, J.-R., Cheng, L., & Wu, H.-W. (2006). The determinants of working capital management. Journal of American Academy of Business, 10(1), 149-155. google scholar
  • Doğan, M., & Elitaş, B. L. (2014). Çalışma sermayesi gereksiniminin belirleyicileri: Borsa İstanbul gıda sektörü üzerine bir inceleme. World of Accounting Science, 16(2). google scholar
  • Fatimatuzzahra, M., & Kusumastuti, R. (2016). The determinant of working capital management of manufacturing companies. Mimbar: Jurnal Sosial dan Pembangunan, 32(2), 276-281. google scholar
  • Fazzari, S. M., & Petersen, B. C. (1993). Working capital and fixed investment - New evidence on financing constraints. Rand Journal of Economics, 24(3), 328-342. https://doi.org/10.2307/2555961 google scholar
  • Gill, A. (2011). Factors that influence working capital requirements in Canada. Economics and Finance Review, 1(3), 30-40. google scholar
  • Hansen, L. P. (1982). Large sample properties of generalized method of moments estimators. Econometrica: Journal of the econometric society, 50(4), 1029-1054. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912775 google scholar
  • Harris, A. (2005). Working capital management: Difficult, but rewarding. Financial Executive, 21(4), 52-54. google scholar
  • Hiadlovsky, V., Rybovicova, I., & Vinczeova, M. (2016). Importance of liquidity analysis in the process of financial management of companies operating in the tourism sector in Slovakia: An empirical study. International Journal for Quality Research, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.18421/IJQR10.04-10 google scholar
  • Hill, M. D., Kelly, G. W., & Highfield, M. J. (2010). Net operating working capital behavior: A first look. Financial Management, 39(2), 783-805. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-053X.2010.01092.x google scholar
  • Hill, R. A. (2013). Working capital and strategic debtor management-eBooks and textbooks from bookboon.com. google scholar
  • İltaş, Y. (2016). Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası sektör bilançolarını kullanarak işletme sermayesi gereksinimini etkileyen değişkenler üzerine bir analiz: 1996-2013. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi(48), 123-143. google scholar
  • IMF. (2019). World Economic Outlook Database, April. International monetary fund. Retrieved March, 20, 2020, from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2019/03/28/world-economic-outlook-april-2019 google scholar
  • Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X google scholar
  • Jeronimo, D. F. R. (2015). The Determinants of Current Ratio on Portuguese Tourism Industry [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Universidade de Lisboa. google scholar
  • KAP. (2022). Kamuyu Aydınlatma Platformu. Retrieved January, 15, 2022, from https://www.kap.org.tr/ google scholar
  • Kaur, N., & Kaur, J. (2014). Determinants of working capital requirements of automobile industry in India: A study of passenger vehicles segment. Indian Accounting Association Past Presidents, 46(2), 117-126. google scholar
  • Kim, J., Kim, H., & Woods, D. (2011). Determinants of corporate cash-holding levels: An empirical examination of the restaurant industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 568-574. https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.10.004 google scholar
  • Kwenda, F., & Holden, M. (2014). Determinants of working capital investment in South Africa: Evidence from selected JSE-listed firms. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 6(7), 569-580. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v6i7.518 google scholar
  • Mansoori, D. E., & Muhammad, D. (2012). Determinants of working capital management: Case of Singapore firms. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 3(11), 15-23. google scholar
  • Mongrut, S., Fuenzalida O’Shee, D., Cubillas Zavaleta, C., & Cubillas Zavaleta, J. (2014). Determinants of working capital management in Latin American companies. Innovar, 24(51), 5-18. google scholar
  • Morais, F., & Silva, P. (2013). Determinants of cash holdings in the accommodation industry. A formataçâo da revista obedece a 6“ ediçâo das normas APA. google scholar
  • Myers, S. C. (1984). Capital structure puzzle. National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA. google scholar
  • Narender, V., Menon, S., & Shwetha, V. (2008). Factors determining working capital management in cement industry. South Asian Journal of Management, 15(4). google scholar
  • Naser, K., Nuseibeh, R., & Al-Hadeya, A. (2013). Factors influencing corporate working capital management: Evidence from an emerging economy. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business Research, 2(1), 11-30. google scholar
  • Nazir, M. S., & Afza, T. (2009). Working capital requirements and the determining factors in Pakistan. IUP Journal of Applied Finance, 15(4), 28. google scholar
  • Ngugi, S. (2014). Determinants of accounts receivables management in the hotel industry in Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. google scholar
  • Nyeadi, J. D., Sare, Y. A., & Aawaar, G. (2018). Determinants of working capital requirement in listed firms: Empirical evidence using a dynamic system GMM. Cogent Economics & Finance, 6(1), 1558713. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2018.1558713 google scholar
  • Palombini, N. V. N., & Nakamura, W. T. (2012). Key factors in working capital management in the Brazilian market. Revista de Administraçâo de Empresas, 52(1), 55-69. google scholar
  • Qurashi, M., & Zahoor, M. (2017). Working capital determinants for the UK pharmaceutical companies listed on FTSE 350 index. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 7(1), 11-17. https://doi.org/10.6007/UARAFMS/v7-i1/2535 google scholar
  • Ramachandran, A., & Janakiraman, M. (2009). The relationship between working capital management efficiency and EBIT. Managing Global Transitions: International Research Journal, 7(1). google scholar
  • Roodman, D. (2009). How to do Xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata. The Stata Journal, 9(1), 86-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0900900106 google scholar
  • Russo, J. F. T. B. (2013). The working capital management: the determinants and the effect on profitability: Evidence from Portuguese SMEs, [Unpublished master’s thesis]. ISCTE Business School. google scholar
  • Sargan, J. D. (1958). The Estimation of Economic Relationships using Instrumental Variables. Econometrica, 26(3), 393-415. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907619 google scholar
  • Supatanakornkj, S. (2015). Determinants and consequences of working capital management [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Edinburgh. google scholar
  • Terzioğlu, M. K. (2017). Capital structure determinants in financial institutions: Turkish banking system. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(2), 507-526. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gaziuiibfd/issue/36598/416137 google scholar
  • UNWTO. (2020). International tourism barometer. UNWTO. Retrieved February, 20, 2020, from https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7 google scholar
  • UNWTO. (2022). UNWTO world tourism barometer and statistical annex, Retrieved March, 30, 2022. UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English version), 20(2), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2022.20.1.2 google scholar
  • Valipour, H., Moradi, J., & Farsi, F. D. (2012). The impact of company characteristics on working capital management. Journal of Applied Finance and Banking, 2(1), 105. google scholar
  • Wachilonga, L. W. (2013). Firm size and capital structure decisions: Evidence from hotel and Lodging SMEs in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(8), 561. google scholar
  • Wasiuzzaman, S., & Arumugam, V. C. (2013). Determinants of working capital investment: a study of Malaysian PublicListed firms. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal, 7(2), 63-83. https://doi.org/10.14453/aabfj.v7i2.5 google scholar
Yıl 2023, Cilt: 9 Sayı: 2, 157 - 168, 30.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886

Öz

Proje Numarası

2017-2-TP3-2656

Kaynakça

  • Abbadi, S. M., & Abbadi, R. T. (2013). The determinants of working capital requirements in Palestinian industrial corporations. International Journal of Economics and Finance, 5(1), 65-75. https://doi:10.5539/ijef.v5n1p65 google scholar
  • Akinlo, O. O. (2012). Determinants of working capital requirements in selected quoted companies in Nigeria. Journal of African Business, 13(1), 40-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2012.657951 google scholar
  • Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277-297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968 google scholar
  • Arellano, M. & Bover, O. (1995) “Another look at the Instrumental Variable Estimation of Error-Components Models”, Journal of Economet-rics,68(1): 29-51. google scholar
  • Azami, Z., & Tabar, F. J. (2016). Investigating the factors affecting working capital of companies using the generalized method of moments. Bulletin de la Societe Royale des Sciences de Liege, 85(1), 1402-1415. https://doi.org/10.25518/0037-9565.6143 google scholar
  • Banos-Caballero, S., Garrfa-Teruel, P. J., & Martmez-Solano, P (2010). Working capital management in SMEs. Accounting & Finance, 50(3), 511-527. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-629X.2009.00331.x google scholar
  • Bansal, S., & Khosla, D. (2015). Working capital management of hotel industry in India: An analysis. International Journal of Research, 2, 442-453. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3458350. google scholar
  • Blundell, R., & Bond, S. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8 google scholar
  • Chiou, J.-R., Cheng, L., & Wu, H.-W. (2006). The determinants of working capital management. Journal of American Academy of Business, 10(1), 149-155. google scholar
  • Doğan, M., & Elitaş, B. L. (2014). Çalışma sermayesi gereksiniminin belirleyicileri: Borsa İstanbul gıda sektörü üzerine bir inceleme. World of Accounting Science, 16(2). google scholar
  • Fatimatuzzahra, M., & Kusumastuti, R. (2016). The determinant of working capital management of manufacturing companies. Mimbar: Jurnal Sosial dan Pembangunan, 32(2), 276-281. google scholar
  • Fazzari, S. M., & Petersen, B. C. (1993). Working capital and fixed investment - New evidence on financing constraints. Rand Journal of Economics, 24(3), 328-342. https://doi.org/10.2307/2555961 google scholar
  • Gill, A. (2011). Factors that influence working capital requirements in Canada. Economics and Finance Review, 1(3), 30-40. google scholar
  • Hansen, L. P. (1982). Large sample properties of generalized method of moments estimators. Econometrica: Journal of the econometric society, 50(4), 1029-1054. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912775 google scholar
  • Harris, A. (2005). Working capital management: Difficult, but rewarding. Financial Executive, 21(4), 52-54. google scholar
  • Hiadlovsky, V., Rybovicova, I., & Vinczeova, M. (2016). Importance of liquidity analysis in the process of financial management of companies operating in the tourism sector in Slovakia: An empirical study. International Journal for Quality Research, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.18421/IJQR10.04-10 google scholar
  • Hill, M. D., Kelly, G. W., & Highfield, M. J. (2010). Net operating working capital behavior: A first look. Financial Management, 39(2), 783-805. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-053X.2010.01092.x google scholar
  • Hill, R. A. (2013). Working capital and strategic debtor management-eBooks and textbooks from bookboon.com. google scholar
  • İltaş, Y. (2016). Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası sektör bilançolarını kullanarak işletme sermayesi gereksinimini etkileyen değişkenler üzerine bir analiz: 1996-2013. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi(48), 123-143. google scholar
  • IMF. (2019). World Economic Outlook Database, April. International monetary fund. Retrieved March, 20, 2020, from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2019/03/28/world-economic-outlook-april-2019 google scholar
  • Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X google scholar
  • Jeronimo, D. F. R. (2015). The Determinants of Current Ratio on Portuguese Tourism Industry [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Universidade de Lisboa. google scholar
  • KAP. (2022). Kamuyu Aydınlatma Platformu. Retrieved January, 15, 2022, from https://www.kap.org.tr/ google scholar
  • Kaur, N., & Kaur, J. (2014). Determinants of working capital requirements of automobile industry in India: A study of passenger vehicles segment. Indian Accounting Association Past Presidents, 46(2), 117-126. google scholar
  • Kim, J., Kim, H., & Woods, D. (2011). Determinants of corporate cash-holding levels: An empirical examination of the restaurant industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 568-574. https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.10.004 google scholar
  • Kwenda, F., & Holden, M. (2014). Determinants of working capital investment in South Africa: Evidence from selected JSE-listed firms. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 6(7), 569-580. https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v6i7.518 google scholar
  • Mansoori, D. E., & Muhammad, D. (2012). Determinants of working capital management: Case of Singapore firms. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting, 3(11), 15-23. google scholar
  • Mongrut, S., Fuenzalida O’Shee, D., Cubillas Zavaleta, C., & Cubillas Zavaleta, J. (2014). Determinants of working capital management in Latin American companies. Innovar, 24(51), 5-18. google scholar
  • Morais, F., & Silva, P. (2013). Determinants of cash holdings in the accommodation industry. A formataçâo da revista obedece a 6“ ediçâo das normas APA. google scholar
  • Myers, S. C. (1984). Capital structure puzzle. National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA. google scholar
  • Narender, V., Menon, S., & Shwetha, V. (2008). Factors determining working capital management in cement industry. South Asian Journal of Management, 15(4). google scholar
  • Naser, K., Nuseibeh, R., & Al-Hadeya, A. (2013). Factors influencing corporate working capital management: Evidence from an emerging economy. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business Research, 2(1), 11-30. google scholar
  • Nazir, M. S., & Afza, T. (2009). Working capital requirements and the determining factors in Pakistan. IUP Journal of Applied Finance, 15(4), 28. google scholar
  • Ngugi, S. (2014). Determinants of accounts receivables management in the hotel industry in Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. google scholar
  • Nyeadi, J. D., Sare, Y. A., & Aawaar, G. (2018). Determinants of working capital requirement in listed firms: Empirical evidence using a dynamic system GMM. Cogent Economics & Finance, 6(1), 1558713. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2018.1558713 google scholar
  • Palombini, N. V. N., & Nakamura, W. T. (2012). Key factors in working capital management in the Brazilian market. Revista de Administraçâo de Empresas, 52(1), 55-69. google scholar
  • Qurashi, M., & Zahoor, M. (2017). Working capital determinants for the UK pharmaceutical companies listed on FTSE 350 index. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 7(1), 11-17. https://doi.org/10.6007/UARAFMS/v7-i1/2535 google scholar
  • Ramachandran, A., & Janakiraman, M. (2009). The relationship between working capital management efficiency and EBIT. Managing Global Transitions: International Research Journal, 7(1). google scholar
  • Roodman, D. (2009). How to do Xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata. The Stata Journal, 9(1), 86-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0900900106 google scholar
  • Russo, J. F. T. B. (2013). The working capital management: the determinants and the effect on profitability: Evidence from Portuguese SMEs, [Unpublished master’s thesis]. ISCTE Business School. google scholar
  • Sargan, J. D. (1958). The Estimation of Economic Relationships using Instrumental Variables. Econometrica, 26(3), 393-415. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907619 google scholar
  • Supatanakornkj, S. (2015). Determinants and consequences of working capital management [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Edinburgh. google scholar
  • Terzioğlu, M. K. (2017). Capital structure determinants in financial institutions: Turkish banking system. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(2), 507-526. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gaziuiibfd/issue/36598/416137 google scholar
  • UNWTO. (2020). International tourism barometer. UNWTO. Retrieved February, 20, 2020, from https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7 google scholar
  • UNWTO. (2022). UNWTO world tourism barometer and statistical annex, Retrieved March, 30, 2022. UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English version), 20(2), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2022.20.1.2 google scholar
  • Valipour, H., Moradi, J., & Farsi, F. D. (2012). The impact of company characteristics on working capital management. Journal of Applied Finance and Banking, 2(1), 105. google scholar
  • Wachilonga, L. W. (2013). Firm size and capital structure decisions: Evidence from hotel and Lodging SMEs in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(8), 561. google scholar
  • Wasiuzzaman, S., & Arumugam, V. C. (2013). Determinants of working capital investment: a study of Malaysian PublicListed firms. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal, 7(2), 63-83. https://doi.org/10.14453/aabfj.v7i2.5 google scholar
Toplam 48 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Beşeri Coğrafya (Diğer)
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Mehmet Beyazgül 0000-0002-3139-4351

Erdinç Karadeniz 0000-0003-2658-8490

Proje Numarası 2017-2-TP3-2656
Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Aralık 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 17 Temmuz 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 9 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Beyazgül, M., & Karadeniz, E. (2023). Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries. Journal of Tourismology, 9(2), 157-168. https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886
AMA Beyazgül M, Karadeniz E. Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries. Journal of Tourismology. Aralık 2023;9(2):157-168. doi:10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886
Chicago Beyazgül, Mehmet, ve Erdinç Karadeniz. “Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries”. Journal of Tourismology 9, sy. 2 (Aralık 2023): 157-68. https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886.
EndNote Beyazgül M, Karadeniz E (01 Aralık 2023) Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries. Journal of Tourismology 9 2 157–168.
IEEE M. Beyazgül ve E. Karadeniz, “Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries”, Journal of Tourismology, c. 9, sy. 2, ss. 157–168, 2023, doi: 10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886.
ISNAD Beyazgül, Mehmet - Karadeniz, Erdinç. “Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries”. Journal of Tourismology 9/2 (Aralık 2023), 157-168. https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886.
JAMA Beyazgül M, Karadeniz E. Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries. Journal of Tourismology. 2023;9:157–168.
MLA Beyazgül, Mehmet ve Erdinç Karadeniz. “Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries”. Journal of Tourismology, c. 9, sy. 2, 2023, ss. 157-68, doi:10.26650/jot.2023.9.2.1324886.
Vancouver Beyazgül M, Karadeniz E. Determinants of Working Capital Investments: Evidence from the Lodging Companies in Developed and Emerging Countries. Journal of Tourismology. 2023;9(2):157-68.