Research Article
The Psychometric Evaluation of the Maternal Employment Guilt Scale: A Development and Validation Study
Abstract
The aim of the current study is to develop Maternal Employment Guilt Scale (MEGS)
and to test its psychometric properties. For this aim, scale items were developed through
a rigorous process of extensive literature search and in-depth interviews, and the scale
was applied to 605 working mothers living in Turkey. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the
MEGS had one-factor structure with 15 items, and confirmatory factor analysis confirmed this structure.
MEGS has good psychometric characteristics with convergent and discriminant validity, regarding
its correlations with other relevant scales used in this study.
References
- Aycan, Z. (2004). Key success factors for women in management in Turkey. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 453–477. Aycan, Z., & Eskin, M. (2005). Relative contribution of childcare, spousal, and organizational support in reducing work-family conflict for males and females: The case of Turkey. Sex Roles, 53, 7(8), 453–471. Bagozzi, R. P., Yi, Y., & Phillips, L. W. (1991). Assessing construct validity in organizational research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(3), 421–458. Benfield, J. A., & Szlemko, W. J. (2006). Internet-based data collection: Promises and realities. Journal of Research Practice, 2(2), Article D1. Retrieved [22.06.2016] from, http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/ jrp/article/view/30/51. Bentler, P. M. (2007). On tests and indices for evaluating structural models. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 825–829. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606. Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 705–725. Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar- Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Front. Public Health, 6(149), 1-18. Borelli, J. L., Nelson, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017). Gender differences in work-family guilt in parents of young children. Sex Roles, 76, 356–368. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. Guilford Publications. Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225. Bugay, A., & Demir, A. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of trait shame and guilt scale. The Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 45, 17–30. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2004). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2009). Sosyal Bilimler için Veri Analiz El Kitabı (10. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık. Clark L. A., & Watson D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Pyschological Assessment, 7:309–19. Dedeoğlu, S. (2009). Eşitlik mi ayrımcılık mı? Türkiye’de sosyal devlet, cinsiyet eşitliği politikaları ve kadın istihdamı [Equality or discrimination?: Social state, gender equality and female employment in Turkey]. Çalışma ve Toplum, 2, 41–54. Desai, S., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Michael, R. T. (1989). Mother or market? Effects of maternal employment on the intellectual ability of 4-year-old children. Demography, 26(4), 545-561. Devellis, R. (2012). Scale Development Theory and Applications. Sage Publications, New York. Douglas, S., & Michaels, M. (2004). The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and How It Has Undermined All Women. New York, NY: Free Press. Field, A. (2000). Discovering statistics using SPSS for Windows. London, UK: Sage. Gençöz, T. (2000). Pozitif ve negatif duygu ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması; [Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A study of Validity and Reliability]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15(46), 19–26. Gravetter, F., & Wallnau, L. (2014). Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Greenberger, E., Goldberg, W. A., Crawford, T. J., & Granger, J. (1988). Beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment for children. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12(1), 35-59. Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Guendouzi, J. (2006). The guilt thing: Balancing domestic and professional roles. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(4), 901–909. Guerrina, R. (2002). Mothering in Europe: Feminist critique of European policies on motherhood and employment. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 9(1), 49–68. Hatcher, L. (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. Cary, N.C.: SAS Institutte, Inc. Hays, S. (1996). The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Heimowitz, D. (2014). Guilt. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340. Hinkin T. R. (1995). A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations. Journal of Management, 21(5), 967–988. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications. İmamoğlu, E. O., Küller, R., İmamoğlu, V., & Küller, M. (1993). Social psychological worlds of Swedes and Turks in and around retirement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(1), 26–41. İmamoğlu, E. O., & Karakitapoğlu-Aygün, Z. (2006). Actual ideal and expected relatedness with parents across and within cultures. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 721–745. Johnston, D. D., & Swanson, D. H. (2003). Invisible mothers: A content analysis of motherhood ideologies and myths in magazines. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49(112), 21–33. Kapuscinski, A. N., & Masters, K. S. (2010). The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(4), 191–205. Katchadourian, H. A. (2010). Guilt: The Bite of Conscience. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford General Books. Kline, P. A. (1993). Handbook of Psychological Testing (2nd Ed). London: Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. Kubany, E. S. (1994). A cognitive model of guilt typology in combat-related PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 3-19. Kuhhirt, M., & Ludwig, W. (2012). Domestic work and the wage penalty for motherhood in West Germany. Journal of Marriage and Family 74, 186–200. Liss M., Schiffrin H. H., & Rizzo, K. M. (2013). Maternal guilt and shame: The role of self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 1112–1119. MacCallum, R. C. (1995). Model specification: Procedures, strategies, and related issues. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Martinez, P., Carrasco, M. J., Aza, G., Blanco, A., & Espinar, I. (2011). Family gender role and guilt in Spanish dual earner families. Sex Roles, 65, 813–826. McDonald, P. K., Bradley, L. M., & Guthrie, D. (2005). Good mothers, bad mothers: Exploring the relationship between attitudes towards nonmaternal childcare and mother’s labour force participation. Journal of Family Studies, 11(1), 62–82. McElwain, A., & Korabik, K. (2004). Work-family guilt. In M. Pitt-Catsouphes, & E. Kossek (Eds.). Work and Family Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved from http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/wfnetwork/rft/wfpedia. Morgado, F. F. R., Meireles, J. F. F., Neves, C.M., Amaral, A.C.S., & Ferreira, M.E.C. (2017). Scale development: Ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research practices. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 30(3), 1-20. O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32(3), 396–402. Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for windows (3rd ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Rohleder, N., Chen, E., Wolf, J. M., & Miller, G. E. (2008). The psychobiology of trait shame in young women: Extending the social self-preservation theory. Health Psychology, 27(5), 523–532. Rotkirch, A & Janhunen, K. (2010). Maternal Guilt. Evolutionary Psychology, 8(1), 90-106. Rubin, S. E., & Wooten, H. R. (2007). Highly educated stay-at-home mothers: A study of commitment and conflict. The Family Journal, 15(4), 336–345. Ruhm, C. J. (2004) Parental employment and child cognitive development. The Journal of Human Resources, 39(1), 155-192. Schinka, J. A, Velicer, W. F., &Weiner, I. R. (2012). Handbook of Psychology, Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323–337. Seagram, S. & Daniluk, J. C. (2002). It goes with the territory: The meaning and experience of maternal guilt for mothers of preadolescent children. Women and Therapy, 25, 61–88. Simms, L. J. (2008). Classical and modern methods of psychological scale construction. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 414–433. Simon, R. W. (1995). Gender, multiple roles, role meaning, and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(2), 182-194. Social Issues Research Centre (2011). The changing face of motherhood, Oxford. Retrieved from http://www. sirc.org/publik/CFOM.pdf. Sullivan, C. (2014). “Bad Mum Guilt”: The representation of ‘work-life balance’ in UK women’s magazine. Community, Work and Family, 18(3), 284- 298. Sutherland, J. (2006). Guilt and shame: Good mothering and labor force participation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal Convention Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Sutherland, J. A. (2010a). Idealization of Mothers. In Encyclopedia of Motherhood edited by Andrea O’Reilly. Sage Publishers. Sutherland, J. A. (2010b). Mothering, guilt, & shame. Sociology Compass, 4(5), 310–321. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Allyn &Bacon. Tangney, J. P. & Tracy, J. (2011). Self-conscious emotions. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds), Handbook of Self and Identity. Guilford Press. Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345-72. The Broad Side (2013). Rebelling Against “Mother”: Finding Fulfillment Beyond the Media’s Myths of Motherhood. Retrieved from http://www.the-broad-side. com/rebelling-against-mother-finding-fulfillment- beyond-the-medias-myths-of-motherhood on 14.06.2016. Trochim, W. M., & Donnelly, J. P. (2006). The research methods knowledge base (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog. Walls, L. (2007). The social construction of motherhood: Implications and interventions. Unpublished Master of Counseling final project submitted to the Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counseling Initiative. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. Wehler, G. (2011). Guilt tripping: Overcoming the obstacle of mother’s guilt. Human Resources Institute of New Zealand, 24–25. Widaman, K. F., Little, T. D., Preacher, K. J., & Sawalani, G. M. (2011). On creating and using short forms of scales in secondary research. In K. H. Trzesniewski, M. B. Donnellan, & R. E. Lucas (Eds.), Secondary data analysis: An introduction for psychologists (pp. 39-61). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S.G. (1990). Educational measurement and testing (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Women’s Media Center (2012). “Having it All?”: The Wrong Question for Most Women. Retrieved from http://www.womensmediacenter.com/feature/entry/ having-it-allthe-wrong-question-for-most-women on September 19, 2016. Working Mother Research Institute (2011). What Moms Choose: The Working Mother Report. Retrieved from http://www.workingmother.com/research-institute/ what-moms-choose-working-mother-report on June 15, 2016.
Abstract
References
- Aycan, Z. (2004). Key success factors for women in management in Turkey. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 453–477. Aycan, Z., & Eskin, M. (2005). Relative contribution of childcare, spousal, and organizational support in reducing work-family conflict for males and females: The case of Turkey. Sex Roles, 53, 7(8), 453–471. Bagozzi, R. P., Yi, Y., & Phillips, L. W. (1991). Assessing construct validity in organizational research. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(3), 421–458. Benfield, J. A., & Szlemko, W. J. (2006). Internet-based data collection: Promises and realities. Journal of Research Practice, 2(2), Article D1. Retrieved [22.06.2016] from, http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/ jrp/article/view/30/51. Bentler, P. M. (2007). On tests and indices for evaluating structural models. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 825–829. Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588–606. Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 705–725. Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar- Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Front. Public Health, 6(149), 1-18. Borelli, J. L., Nelson, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017). Gender differences in work-family guilt in parents of young children. Sex Roles, 76, 356–368. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. Guilford Publications. Budig, M. J., & England, P. (2001). The wage penalty for motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66, 204–225. Bugay, A., & Demir, A. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Turkish version of trait shame and guilt scale. The Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 45, 17–30. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2004). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2009). Sosyal Bilimler için Veri Analiz El Kitabı (10. Baskı). Ankara: Pegem Yayıncılık. Clark L. A., & Watson D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Pyschological Assessment, 7:309–19. Dedeoğlu, S. (2009). Eşitlik mi ayrımcılık mı? Türkiye’de sosyal devlet, cinsiyet eşitliği politikaları ve kadın istihdamı [Equality or discrimination?: Social state, gender equality and female employment in Turkey]. Çalışma ve Toplum, 2, 41–54. Desai, S., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Michael, R. T. (1989). Mother or market? Effects of maternal employment on the intellectual ability of 4-year-old children. Demography, 26(4), 545-561. Devellis, R. (2012). Scale Development Theory and Applications. Sage Publications, New York. Douglas, S., & Michaels, M. (2004). The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and How It Has Undermined All Women. New York, NY: Free Press. Field, A. (2000). Discovering statistics using SPSS for Windows. London, UK: Sage. Gençöz, T. (2000). Pozitif ve negatif duygu ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması; [Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A study of Validity and Reliability]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15(46), 19–26. Gravetter, F., & Wallnau, L. (2014). Essentials of Statistics for The Behavioral Sciences (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Greenberger, E., Goldberg, W. A., Crawford, T. J., & Granger, J. (1988). Beliefs about the consequences of maternal employment for children. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12(1), 35-59. Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Guendouzi, J. (2006). The guilt thing: Balancing domestic and professional roles. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(4), 901–909. Guerrina, R. (2002). Mothering in Europe: Feminist critique of European policies on motherhood and employment. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 9(1), 49–68. Hatcher, L. (1994). A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. Cary, N.C.: SAS Institutte, Inc. Hays, S. (1996). The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Heimowitz, D. (2014). Guilt. Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340. Hinkin T. R. (1995). A review of scale development practices in the study of organizations. Journal of Management, 21(5), 967–988. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications. İmamoğlu, E. O., Küller, R., İmamoğlu, V., & Küller, M. (1993). Social psychological worlds of Swedes and Turks in and around retirement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(1), 26–41. İmamoğlu, E. O., & Karakitapoğlu-Aygün, Z. (2006). Actual ideal and expected relatedness with parents across and within cultures. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 721–745. Johnston, D. D., & Swanson, D. H. (2003). Invisible mothers: A content analysis of motherhood ideologies and myths in magazines. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49(112), 21–33. Kapuscinski, A. N., & Masters, K. S. (2010). The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(4), 191–205. Katchadourian, H. A. (2010). Guilt: The Bite of Conscience. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford General Books. Kline, P. A. (1993). Handbook of Psychological Testing (2nd Ed). London: Routledge; Taylor & Francis Group. Kubany, E. S. (1994). A cognitive model of guilt typology in combat-related PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 3-19. Kuhhirt, M., & Ludwig, W. (2012). Domestic work and the wage penalty for motherhood in West Germany. Journal of Marriage and Family 74, 186–200. Liss M., Schiffrin H. H., & Rizzo, K. M. (2013). Maternal guilt and shame: The role of self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 1112–1119. MacCallum, R. C. (1995). Model specification: Procedures, strategies, and related issues. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Martinez, P., Carrasco, M. J., Aza, G., Blanco, A., & Espinar, I. (2011). Family gender role and guilt in Spanish dual earner families. Sex Roles, 65, 813–826. McDonald, P. K., Bradley, L. M., & Guthrie, D. (2005). Good mothers, bad mothers: Exploring the relationship between attitudes towards nonmaternal childcare and mother’s labour force participation. Journal of Family Studies, 11(1), 62–82. McElwain, A., & Korabik, K. (2004). Work-family guilt. In M. Pitt-Catsouphes, & E. Kossek (Eds.). Work and Family Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved from http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/wfnetwork/rft/wfpedia. Morgado, F. F. R., Meireles, J. F. F., Neves, C.M., Amaral, A.C.S., & Ferreira, M.E.C. (2017). Scale development: Ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research practices. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 30(3), 1-20. O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32(3), 396–402. Pallant, J. (2007). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for windows (3rd ed.). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Rohleder, N., Chen, E., Wolf, J. M., & Miller, G. E. (2008). The psychobiology of trait shame in young women: Extending the social self-preservation theory. Health Psychology, 27(5), 523–532. Rotkirch, A & Janhunen, K. (2010). Maternal Guilt. Evolutionary Psychology, 8(1), 90-106. Rubin, S. E., & Wooten, H. R. (2007). Highly educated stay-at-home mothers: A study of commitment and conflict. The Family Journal, 15(4), 336–345. Ruhm, C. J. (2004) Parental employment and child cognitive development. The Journal of Human Resources, 39(1), 155-192. Schinka, J. A, Velicer, W. F., &Weiner, I. R. (2012). Handbook of Psychology, Volume 2: Research Methods in Psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323–337. Seagram, S. & Daniluk, J. C. (2002). It goes with the territory: The meaning and experience of maternal guilt for mothers of preadolescent children. Women and Therapy, 25, 61–88. Simms, L. J. (2008). Classical and modern methods of psychological scale construction. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 414–433. Simon, R. W. (1995). Gender, multiple roles, role meaning, and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36(2), 182-194. Social Issues Research Centre (2011). The changing face of motherhood, Oxford. Retrieved from http://www. sirc.org/publik/CFOM.pdf. Sullivan, C. (2014). “Bad Mum Guilt”: The representation of ‘work-life balance’ in UK women’s magazine. Community, Work and Family, 18(3), 284- 298. Sutherland, J. (2006). Guilt and shame: Good mothering and labor force participation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal Convention Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Sutherland, J. A. (2010a). Idealization of Mothers. In Encyclopedia of Motherhood edited by Andrea O’Reilly. Sage Publishers. Sutherland, J. A. (2010b). Mothering, guilt, & shame. Sociology Compass, 4(5), 310–321. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Allyn &Bacon. Tangney, J. P. & Tracy, J. (2011). Self-conscious emotions. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds), Handbook of Self and Identity. Guilford Press. Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345-72. The Broad Side (2013). Rebelling Against “Mother”: Finding Fulfillment Beyond the Media’s Myths of Motherhood. Retrieved from http://www.the-broad-side. com/rebelling-against-mother-finding-fulfillment- beyond-the-medias-myths-of-motherhood on 14.06.2016. Trochim, W. M., & Donnelly, J. P. (2006). The research methods knowledge base (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog. Walls, L. (2007). The social construction of motherhood: Implications and interventions. Unpublished Master of Counseling final project submitted to the Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counseling Initiative. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. Wehler, G. (2011). Guilt tripping: Overcoming the obstacle of mother’s guilt. Human Resources Institute of New Zealand, 24–25. Widaman, K. F., Little, T. D., Preacher, K. J., & Sawalani, G. M. (2011). On creating and using short forms of scales in secondary research. In K. H. Trzesniewski, M. B. Donnellan, & R. E. Lucas (Eds.), Secondary data analysis: An introduction for psychologists (pp. 39-61). Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S.G. (1990). Educational measurement and testing (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Women’s Media Center (2012). “Having it All?”: The Wrong Question for Most Women. Retrieved from http://www.womensmediacenter.com/feature/entry/ having-it-allthe-wrong-question-for-most-women on September 19, 2016. Working Mother Research Institute (2011). What Moms Choose: The Working Mother Report. Retrieved from http://www.workingmother.com/research-institute/ what-moms-choose-working-mother-report on June 15, 2016.
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