Investigation of Preschool Preservice Teachers' Perceptions of Scientific Knowledge through Metaphor

Scientific knowledge is a kind of objective knowledge, which is systematic, valid, consistent, triable and provable. From this point of view, the metaphoric perceptions of preservice teachers, who engaged in many scientific knowledge and processes during the teachers’ training process, were found worthy of investigation in this study. This study adopted the phenomenology study design. The sample consisted of 170 preservice teachers studying in preschool education in a state university during the 2019–2020 academic year. The questionnaire form prepared by the researchers was used to find out the current metaphorical perceptions of preservice teachers about the concept of ‘scientific knowledge’. In this study, a total of 139 metaphors related to scientific knowledge were created. Metaphors created by 170 preservice teachers participating in the study were categorised based on their commonalities and divided into nine categories.


Introduction
Science, dating back to ancient times, is a field of activity that has emerged with the motivation of understanding, knowing and learning the world and the universe. Human beings have used the information that they obtained through the scientific process in different areas such as surviving, facilitating daily life tasks and dominating nature. The experience gained as a result of these efforts leads to the discovery of new information which, in the end, results in the growth of science like a snowball and the creation of different scientific fields. Another field of science which progresses through a cumulative process has been the transmission of discovered knowledge to the new generations. The need to transfer science and knowledge from generation to generation has led to the birth of education, which is also another field of scientific study. Each new knowledge in philosophy, logic, mathematics, biology, history and geography has been transferred to learners in educational institutions and schools. western curriculum (Popper, 1966). In today's information and digital society, although education has a close relationship with the latest developments in information and communication technologies, traditional discipline knowledge is stated to form the basis of the school curriculum (Gilbert, 2007). The curriculum was developed to provide the skills needed for the 21st century information society, 'Partnership for 21st Century Skills' emphasised that academic discipline knowledge should be included under the core school subjects (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2010). From this point of view, it is clearly understood that academic discipline knowledge obtained through scientific processes has been the cornerstone of education systems every time period, and scientific knowledge is tried to be transmitted to the learners under academic discipline knowledge through the courses in the curriculum.
Today, many developed countries in the world have been able to make scientific and technological advances, thanks to the scientific process, where they have obtained the knowledge and transmitted this knowledge to new generations in the educational context (Kola, 2013). This led the issue of training individuals in a way that they can assimilate science and scientific knowledge and use it in the real world in today's educational approach (Acat, Tuken & Karadag, 2010). The schools during our days demand the students to work like a scientist and know how to produce knowledge and the methods of producing and verifying knowledge (Hodson, 2003), and this demand is observed even in the lowest level of educational institutions. The preschool education institutions and curriculum in Turkey, especially recommended to preschool teachers to carry out the concept studies, create science or science learning centres. These educational targets not only address the children's learning but also their scientific process skills which are improved with the help of providing opportunities for children to know the world they live in (Ministry of National Education, Preschool Curriculum (MoNE), 2018).
Scientific knowledge emerges as a result of individuals' interaction with the scientific process and context (Meichtry, 1999). Thus, teachers working in schools have the responsibility of providing students with such experience in a meaningful way (Gaffney, 2005). In fact, this situation is much more important in certain educational levels. When compared to the other levels, the teachers working in preschool education institutions are said to have much more impact on students' perception of science concepts (Senel & Aslan, 2014). In this case, it is important to reveal the preservice teachers' perceptions about the  (Gurkan, Ozgun & Kahraman, 2017). While transferring an abstract concept such as scientific knowledge to a very young learner group, the preschool teachers need to turn this concept into a more concrete structure that children can understand. With this perspective, the metaphor method can be an effective way to reveal the perceptions of preschool teachers. Hence, the use of a more tangible object to explain an abstract concept not only increases the effectiveness of the learning and teaching process (Pratte, 1981) but also contributes to the understanding and knowledge transfer obtained from the outside (Cosar, 2011). The metaphoric perceptions of preservice teachers, who are exposed to many scientific knowledge and processes in their training process, are thought to be worth exploring in this study.
This study aimed to reveal the preschool preservice teachers' perceptions of the scientific knowledge concept through the metaphor method. With this general aim, the following research questions were investigated: • What kind of metaphors do preschool preservice teachers produce for the concept of scientific knowledge?
• How are the metaphors produced by preschool preservice teachers for the concept of scientific knowledge categorised?

Research Design
This study, which aims to reveal the deep and detailed thoughts of preschool preservice teachers toward the concept of scientific knowledge, adopted the phenomenology study design. Phenomenology is a research design focusing on the meanings that people derive from their own life experiences or where the researchers try to derive the meaning from the other people's life experiences (Koopman, 2015).

Study Group
In this study, the participants were chosen by the criterion sampling method. In criterion sampling method, the participants are included in the study based on the predetermined criteria (Patton, 2014). The sampling criteria of this study were that preservice teachers should be recruited in preschool education department in the 2019-2020 academic year. Within the scope of this study, 170 preservice teachers were participated voluntarily in the study. The descriptive statistics results of the participants are shown in Table 1.

Data Collection Tool
The questionnaire form prepared by the researchers was used to find out the current metaphorical perceptions of preservice teachers about the concept of 'scientific knowledge'.
The questionnaire form was comprised of two personal questions (gender and grade level) and the statement 'Scientific knowledge is like/ similar <<<<<.. Because <<..<<< '.
The draft questionnaire form was sent to three experts (in the field of psychological counselling and guidance, curriculum and development and measurement and evaluation).
As a result of the feedback from the experts, the necessary revisions were made on the questionnaire form, and it was submitted to the approval of the ethics committee and then applied to preschool preservice teachers.

Data Collection Process
First, the general information about the metaphors was provided to the preservice teachers, and the preservice teachers were invited for participation in the study, which was completely voluntary. Then, the questionnaire form was handed out to the volunteer preservice teachers, and they were asked to write a metaphor and explain why they choose it. For this process, 20 minutes were allocated for preservice teachers, and any intervention was avoided in order not to impress participants' opinions. The main data source of the study consisted of these opinions written by the participants in their own handwriting.

Data Analysis
The data collected in this study were analysed by content analysis technique which is expressed as the determination of repetitive words or themes in a text obtained by a qualitative method (Patton, 2014). The content analysis was processed with a 5-step inductive content analysis method suggested in the relevant literature (Bektas & Karadag, 2013). These five steps are as follows: (1) naming stage, (2) eliminating stage, (3) category development stage, (4) ensuring validity and reliability and (5) transferring data to the computer stage.

Findings
In this study, a total of 139 metaphors related to scientific knowledge were created by the preschool preservice teachers. Metaphors created by the participants were categorised based on their commonalities and divided into nine categories: (1) scientific knowledge as a need, (2) scientific knowledge as a dynamic structure, (3) scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure, (4) scientific knowledge as a structure obtained as a result of the scientific process, (5) scientific knowledge as a structure that gives strength, selfconfidence and benefit, (6) scientific knowledge as a structure that needs effort and labour, (7) scientific knowledge as an infinite structure, (8) scientific knowledge as a cumulative structure and (9) 'scientific knowledge as an enlightening, guiding resource'. The distribution of the metaphors created by the preschool preservice teachers regarding the determined categories is shown in Table 2. It was found out that the most of the metaphors created by preschool preservice teachers were in the category of 'scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure', and in this category, 27 preschool preservice teachers create 25 different metaphors, whereas the least metaphor was created in the category of 'scientific knowledge as a need' (n = 6), and in this category, seven preschool preservice teachers create only six different metaphors.

Category 1. Scientific knowledge as a need
In this category, 27 preschool preservice teachers create six different metaphors.
When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to  Table 3. The metaphors created under the 'scientific knowledge as a need' category showed that preschool preservice teachers associate scientific knowledge with the items that are of great importance for human life such as nature (2), life (1), heat (1), heart (1), water (1) and food (1)

Category 2. Scientific knowledge as a dynamic structure
In this category, 24 preschool preservice teachers create 20 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors' is examined, the preservice teachers were found to handle scientific knowledge as a dynamic structure that is in constant change and development. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 4.

Category 3. Scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure
In this category, 27 preschool preservice teachers create 25 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to handle scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 5. The metaphors created under the 'scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure' category showed that the preschool preservice teachers associate scientific knowledge with components such as water (2), mathematics (1), book (1), light (1)

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In this category, 14 preschool preservice teachers create 13 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to perceive scientific knowledge as a structure obtained as a result of the scientific process. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 6. In this category, 16 preschool preservice teachers create 13 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to perceive scientific knowledge as a structure that gives strength, self-confidence and benefit. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 7.

. Scientific knowledge as a structure that needs effort and labour
In this category, 11 preschool preservice teachers create 10 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to perceive scientific knowledge as a structure that needs effort and labour. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 8. The metaphors created under the 'scientific knowledge as a structure that needs effort and labour' category showed that the preschool preservice teachers associate scientific knowledge with components such as tree (2) Table 9. In this category, 14 preschool preservice teachers create 14 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to perceive scientific knowledge as a cumulative structure. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 10. In this category, 37 preschool preservice teachers create 22 different metaphors. When the content of these metaphors is examined, the preservice teachers were found to perceive scientific knowledge as an enlightening, guiding resource. The metaphors and their frequencies created by the preservice teachers under this category are shown in Table 11. The metaphors created under the 'scientific knowledge as an enlightening, guiding resource' category showed that the preschool preservice teachers associate scientific knowledge with components such as sun (7), light (5), sky (1), compass (3), lighthouse (2) and mother (2). Some of the metaphor expressions created under this category are as follows: Scientific knowledge is like a father. Because; whenever we are in difficulty or in trouble, it shows us the right option. We always need its existence… [PT5].

Discussion and Conclusion
The metaphors produced by the preservice teachers were determined to be similar to those created for the concept of 'science' and 'knowledge' (Biyikli, Basbay & Basbay, 2014;Gurkan, Ozgün & Kahraman, 2017;Saban, 2008;Senel & Aslan, 2014). Within the scope of the research, most of the metaphors created by preschool preservice teachers were found to be in the category of 'scientific knowledge as an unchangeable-definitive structure', and this category included 25 out of 139 metaphors created in total. As the preschool preservice teachers produce the positive metaphors for scientific knowledge, it can be interpreted as they generally have a positive perception about scientific knowledge.
It has been determined that the preschool preservice teachers have the opinion that the needs are the main factor for the production of scientific knowledge. This perception is thought to arise mainly from the view that scientific need is one of the determining factors that leads to the emergence of scientific knowledge. In the 2500s B.C, ancient people were determined to conduct the research and studies in the fields of mathematics, geometry, astronomy, biology, chemistry, geography, geology and philosophy (http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim), and they used the knowledge that they obtained to carry out daily life activities such as hunting, trade and agriculture (Singer, 2013). In this concept, human needs are considered as a determining factor for the emergence of scientific knowledge (Arik, 2019).
It has been determined that the preschool preservice teachers have the opinion that scientific knowledge can only be accessed with the use of scientific processes. In the teacher training course called scientific research methods in education, a unit or theme is generally allocated for the definitions about the concepts of science and scientific knowledge. These definitions frequently emphasise the scientific processes and methods. For instance, Cepni (2012) defined the science as a handling of scientific process and products within the logic rules, Ekiz (2009) defined the science as the process of obtaining information with appropriate methods and data collection tools and Arslan (1999) defined the scientific knowledge as systematic, orderly, valid, consistent, provable, testable and objective type obtained as a result of scientific methods. The preschool preservice teachers have stated that scientific knowledge has an unchangeable structure. Cepni (2012) stated that scientific knowledge is based on data obtained through objective methods and processes, and thus, this knowledge has a feature that cannot be change from one person to another and from one society to another. This point of view supports the positivist statement that scientific knowledge is objective. The positivism suggests that there is only one real knowledge that is scientific knowledge, and all other knowledge except the scientific one cannot be testable and provable (Hughes, 2010).
The preschool preservice teachers have the opinion that scientific knowledge has a dynamic structure. Lederman (1983) stated that science is a dynamic and on-going activity rather than a static knowledge accumulation. Thus, scientific knowledge obtained through scientific processes has also been thought to have a dynamic structure. Gaffney (2005) stated that scientific knowledge is durable but open to change. Since the life around us witnesses an important and rapid change (Hodson, 2003), science and scientific knowledge appears as a part or a reason for this change. Any knowledge produced in science may lose its validity in 10 years or may raise new questions (Weber, 1946). As a result of new knowledge and theories discovered, the existing knowledge may lose its validity, so scientific knowledge is open to change .
The preschool preservice teachers have stated that scientific knowledge has a cumulative feature. The most important feature of scientific knowledge is its being progressive (Arslan, 1999), i.e., it progress from past to future cumulatively (Ekiz, 2009). The scientific studies are based on the past studies, i.e., a new knowledge is formed on the basis of knowledge obtained by others. Therefore, the knowledge obtained in science is accepted as the products of the past (Mendelsohn, 2012). The questions that guide scientific research and the scientists who put forth these questions have indicated that the science is always obtained as a result of the joint efforts of the larger society and culture, where it is applied (Bartos & Lederman, 2014).
The preschool preservice teachers have stated that scientific knowledge has an infinite structure. In the study conducted by Senel and Aslan (2014), the preschool preservice teachers have been determined to state that the concept of science has a wide-infinite structure. Gurkan, Ozgun and Kahraman (2017) in their study found that preservice teachers handle the knowledge as a wide-infinite structure. When the preservice teachers' statements were analysed, the preservice teachers generally used such expressions as ...it seems simple at first, then you realise that it is an endless and immense road as you proceed<*PT2+. ...As people research, they understand that there is much more knowledge to learn<*PT27+. <As you research, examine, observe and experiment, it deepens like an immense ocean<. *PT43+.
These statements show that the preservice teachers emphasised the existence of much more scientific knowledge than they really think.
The preschool preservice teachers deal with the scientific knowledge as a structure that gives strength, self-confidence and benefit. Knowledge is the most important criterion that distinguishes humans from other living things. Today, many living creatures in the world fulfil their development through their instincts, which is not the same for human beings (Mengusoglu, 1988). What is the most important key for the development of human beings is knowledge (Yilmaz, 1998). For this reason, it can be thought that the knowledge gained through scientific processes leads to a quality that improves human life, benefits it, helps it, gains strength and thus develops confidence toward it.
The preschool preservice teachers handle the scientific knowledge as a structure that needs effort and labour. In the study carried out by Biyikli, Basbay and Basbay (2014), middle school and high school students stated that science was realised as a result of endeavouring. In the study carried out by Gurkan, Ozgun and Kahraman (2017), the preservice teachers stated that knowledge emerged as a result of effort and labour. When the related literature was examined, the knowledge obtained at the end of scientific processes was frequently handled as a product of the human being's common effort (Ekiz, 2009). These statements may have led the preservice teachers to think that scientific knowledge requires effort and labour.
The preschool preservice teachers have the opinion that scientific knowledge acts as an enlightening, guiding resource. In the studies carried out by Saban (2008) and Gurkan, Ozgun and Kahraman (2017), the participants were determined to handle the scientific knowledge as enlightening, guiding resource. This perception may have resulted from the fact that science and scientific knowledge played a key role for the ending of dark periods and illuminating role in the history of humankind. For example, medieval people got rid of pressure and misapplication, thanks to science, and made groundbreaking scientific discoveries and inventions such as geographical discoveries and printing (Akarsu, 2017).

This historical information is frequently presented to preservice teachers in Scientific
Research Methods in Education coursebooks (Cepni, 2012;Ekiz, 2009), and this may led the preservice teachers to attribute the guiding and enlightening role of science to scientific knowledge. This can be supported with the relevant literature. Since scientific knowledge has a feature of objectivity, it has to meet a number of criteria such as being universal, guiding life, being testable with facts in outer world and being falsifiable. For this reason, it is stated that scientific knowledge claims to lead and guide the life (Tekeli, 2002).
When the metaphors created by preservice teachers for the concept of scientific knowledge were analysed, it was seen that these metaphors are generally similar to those created for the concept of 'science' and 'knowledge' (Biyikli, Basbay & Basbay, 2014;Gurkan, Ozgun & Kahraman, 2017;2008b;Senel & Aslan, 2014). This shows that the preservice teachers make use of their knowledge about the 'nature of science' and 'science' while explaining scientific knowledge. Indeed, this is a general feature of metaphor studies, where the features of something unknown are tried to be explained with the help of the feature of something known. That is, an abstract concept is explained and expressed with the help of more concrete objects and concepts (Burke, 1992). The similar understanding also exists in the scientific literature, and although it expresses two different dimensions, the nature of science and the nature of scientific knowledge are used interchangeably. In fact, science and scientific knowledge do not mean the same thing. While science is an activity that people perform to understand and explain a phenomenon, scientific knowledge is the product obtained as a result of this process. Scientific knowledge is the result of human interaction with scientific activity and social context (Meichtry, 1999). Creativity plays an important role in the process of scientific knowledge, but laws and theories are also used. In addition, although science emphasises the objectivity, there is subjectivity in the formation of scientific knowledge. Thus, it is the product of a relationship between observations and inferences (NSTA, 2000). The metaphors created by the preservice teachers regarding scientific knowledge indicate that preservice teachers have a lack of knowledge or misconceptions about the concept of scientific knowledge as they do not mention the above-mentioned descriptions and explanations. In this case, it is recommended that prospective teachers studying at teachers training institutions should be exposed to clearer, descriptive and explanatory learning activities and processes related to scientific knowledge.