Çoklu Görevler ile Bilişsel Kontrol Yetisi İlişkisinin Teorik Arka Planda İncelenmesi

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 389 - 407, 24.12.2019

Mine İmren

https://doi.org/10.31592/aeusbed.601061

Öz

Dijital çağda kişiselleşen
teknolojik bilgi iletişim ürünlerinin kullanımı oldukça yaygınlaşmıştır. Bu
teknolojik ürünler sundukları çok sayıda bilgi ve fonksiyonlarla bireyleri
çoklu görevlere yönlendirmektedir. Medya ürünlerinin eş zamanlı veya geçişler
halinde kullanılması, çoklu medya görevi (ÇMG) olarak adlandırılan bir çoklu
görev (ÇG) türüdür. Özellikle gençler tarafından sıklıkla kullanılan cihazların
bilişsel düzeydeki etkileri hakkındaki çalışmalar daha fazla bilişsel kontrol
yetisi üzerine yoğunlaşmış görünmektedir. Bilişsel kontrol, çoklu medya
görevlerini sürdürmede elzem bir yeti olarak nitelendirilmektedir. Bilişsel
kontrol yetisi ve ÇMG kullanım yoğunluğunu araştıran çalışmalardan elde edilen
sonuçlar, genel olarak daha yoğun bir biçimde ÇMG kullanımı bildiren
katılımcıların çeşitli bilişsel kontrol ögeleri ile ilgili görevlerde daha az
başarılı olduğunu, günlük deneyimlerinin daha olumsuz olduğunu ve beyinde
bilişsel kontrol yetisi ile ilgili bölgelerde yapısal değişimler ve farklı
aktivasyon örüntülerine sahip olduklarını göstermiştir. Derlemenin amacı
laboratuvar, öz bildirim ve beyin görüntüleme çaışmalarından elde edilen
sonuçların alan yazında eksik olduğu gözlenen teorik arka plan dâhilinde
incelenmesidir. Bu kapsamda, derlenen çalışma sonuçları çoklu görev teori ve
hipotezleri çerçevesinde karşılaştırılarak tartışılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

çoklu görev, çoklu medya görevi, bilişsel kontrol, yürütücü işlevler

Examining the Relationship between Multitasking and Cognitive Control Ability on the Theoretical Background

Öz

In the
digital age, the use of personalized information and communication technology
products has become widespread. These technological products have directed
individuals to multitasking with various supplied information and functions.
Using media products simultaneously or in transition is a type of multitasking
(MT) named as media multitasking (MMT). Especially, the studies of the effects
on the cognitive level of devices frequently used by younger people appear focusing
mainly on cognitive control ability. Cognitive control is considered as an
essential ability in maintaining media multitasking. The results obtained from
the researches investigating cognitive control ability and the intensity of MMT
usage have shown that participants reporting more intensive usage of MMT in
general, are less successful in tasks related to various cognitive control
competences, their daily experience is more negative, and they have structural
changes in areas related to cognitive control ability and different activation
patterns in brain. The aim of this review is to examine the results obtained
from the studies of laboratory, self-report and neuroimaging within the
theoretical background which is regarded as being a lack in the literature. In
this context, compiled results of studies have been compared and discussed in
the light of multitasking theories and hypotheses.

Anahtar Kelimeler

: multitasking, media multitasking, cognitive control, executive functions

Kaynakça

• Altmann, E. M. ve Gray, W. D. (2008). An integrated model of cognitive control in task switching. Psychological Review, 115(3), 602–639.
• Alzahabi, R., ve Becker, M. W. (2013). The association between media multitasking, task-switching, and dual-task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology.
• Human Perception and Performance, 39(5), 1485–95.
• Amer, T., Campbell, K. L., ve Hasher, L. (2016). Cognitive control as a double-edged sword. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(12), 905–915.
• Banich, M. T., (2009). Executive functions: The search for an integrated account. Association for Psychological Science, 18(2), 89–94.
• Barrouillet, P. ve Camos, V. (2010). Working memory and executive control: A time-based resource-sharing account (1). Psychologica Belgica, 50(3), 353–382.
• Baumgartner, S. E., Weeda, W.D., Van Der Heijden, L. L., ve Huizinga, M.(2014). The relationship between media multitasking and executive function in early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(8), 1120–1144.
• Berlyne, D. E. (1960). McGraw-Hill series in psychology. Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
• Borst, J. P. ve Anderson, J. R. (2017). A step-by-step tutorial on using the cognitive architecture ACT-R in combination with fMRI data. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 76, 94–103.
• Borst, J. P., Taatgen, N. A., ve van Rijn, H. (2010). The problem state: A cognitive bottleneck in multitasking. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(2), 363–382.
• Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., ve Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108(3), 624–652.
• Botvinick, M. M., ve Cohen, J. D. (2014). The computational and neural basis of cognitive control: Charted territory and new frontiers. Cognitive Science, 38(6), 1249–1285.
• Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Bunge, S. A. ve Souza, M. J. (2009). Executive function and higher-order cognition. Neuroimaging, 4, 111–116.
• Burgess, P. W., Veitch, E., De Lacy Costello, A., ve Shallice, T. (2000). The cognitive and neuroanatomical correlates of multitasking. Neuropsychologia, 38(6), 848–863.
• Cachia, A., Borst, G., Vidal, J., Fischer, C., Pineau, A., Mangin, J. F., ve Houdé, O. (2014). The shape of the ACC contributes to cognitive control efficiency in preschoolers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 26(1), 96-106.
• Cain, M. S. ve Mitroff, S. R. (2011). Distractor filtering in media multitaskers. Perception, 40(10), 1183-92. Cain, M.S., Leonard, J.A., Gabrieli, J.D.E., ve Finn, A.S. (2016). Media multitasking in adolescence. Psychonomic Bulletin &Review, 1932–1941.
• Cardoso-Leite, P., Kludt, R., Vignola, G., Ma, W. J., Green, C. S., ve Bavelier, D.(2016). Technology consumption and cognitive control: Contrasting action video game experience with media multitasking. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 78(1): 218-241.
• Chan, R. C. K., Shum, D., Toulopoulou, T., ve Chen, E. Y. H. (2008). Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(2), 201–216.
• Choudhury, S. ve McKinney, K. a. (2013). Digital media, the developing brain and the interpretive plasticity of neuroplasticity. Transcultural Psychiatry, 50(2), 192–215.
• Craik, K. J. W. (1948). Theory of the human operator in control systems. British Journal of Psychology. General Section, 38(3), 142–148
• Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168.
• Duncan, J., ve Owen, A.M. (2000). Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends in Neurosciences, 23, 475–483.
• Dzubak, C. M. (2008). Multitasking: The good, the bad, and the unknown. The Journal of the Association for the Tutoring Profession, 1(2), 1–12.
• Edwards, K. S. ve Shin, M. (2017). Media multitasking and implicit learning. Attention, Perception, &Psychophysics.
• Friedman, N. P. ve Miyake, A.(2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. Gardner, R. W., Holzman, P. S., Klein, G. S., Linton, H. B., & Spence, D. P. (1959). Cognitive control: A study of individual consistencies in cognitive behavior. Psychological Issues, 1(4), 1-186.
• Gbadeyan, O., McMahon, K., Steinhauser, M., ve Meinzer, M.(2016). Stimulation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex enhances adaptive cognitive control: A high definition transcranial direct current stimulation study. Journal of Neuroscience, 36(50), 12530–12536.
• Grafman, J. ve Litvan, I. (1999). Importance of deficits in executive functions. The Lancet, 354 (9194), 1921-1923.
• Hammond, K. R., ve Summers, D. A. (1972). Cognitive control. Psychological Review, 79(1), 58-67.
• Hwang, Y., Kim, H. ve Jeong, S. (2014). Why do media users multitask? Motives for general, medium-specific, and content-specific types of multitasking. Computers in Human Behavior 36, 542–548.
• İmren, M. (2019). Çoklu medya görevini yordayan değişkenler üzerine bir gözden geçirme. Nesne, 7(14), 136- 147.
• İmren, M. ve Tekman, H. G. (2019). The relationship between media multitasking, working memory, and sustaıned attention. Uludağ Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20 (37), 1075-1100.
• Jersild, A. T. (1927). Mental set and shift. Archives of Psychology, 14(89), 81.
• Kane, M. J. ve Engle, R. W. (2002). The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual differences perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 637-671.
• Koechlin, E., Ody, C., ve Kouneiher, F. (2003). The architecture of cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. Science, 302(5648), 1181-1185.
• Lin, L. (2009). Breadth-biased versus focused cognitive control in media multitasking behaviors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(37), 15521–15522.
• Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91(3), 295.
• Loh, K. K., ve Kanai, R. (2014). Higher media multi-tasking activity is associated with smaller gray-matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex. PLoS ONE, 9(9), 1–7.
• Lui, K. F. H., ve Wong, A. C.N. (2012). Does media multitasking always hurt? A positive correlation between multitasking and multisensory integration. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(4), 647–653.
• MacDonald, A. W., Cohen, J. D., Stenger, V. A., & Carter, C. S. (2000). Dissociating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex in cognitive control. Science, 288(5472), 1835-1838.
• Mackie, M.-A., Van Dam, N. T., ve Fan, J.(2013). Cognitive control and attentional functions. Brain and Cognition, 82(3), 301–312.
• Magen, H. (2017). The relations between executive functions, media multitasking, and polychronicity. Computers in Human Behavior, 67, 1–9.
• Meyer, D. E., ve Kieras, D. E. (1997a). A computational theory of executive cognitive processes and multiple-task performance: Part 1. Basic mechanisms. Psychological Review, 104(1), 3–65.
• Meyer, D. E., ve Kieras, D. E. (1997b). A computational theory of executive cognitive processes and multiple-task performance: Part 2. Accounts of psychological refractory-period phenomena. Psychological Review, 104(4), 749.
• Miller, E. K. (2000). The prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 1, 59–65.
• Miller, E. K., ve Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167–202.
• Minear, M., Brasher, F., McCurdy, M., Lewis, J., ve Younggren, A. (2013). Working memory, fluid intelligence, and impulsiveness in heavy media multitaskers. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 1274–81.
• Moisala, M., Salmela, V., Hietajrvi, L., Salo, E., Carlson, S., Salonen, O., … Alho, K. (2016). Media multitasking is associated with distractibility and increased prefrontal activity in adolescents and young adults. NeuroImage, 134, 113–121.
• Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(3), 134–140.
• Monsell, S., ve Driver, J. (Eds.). (2000). Control of cognitive processes: Attention and performance XVIII(Vol. 18). Cambridge: MIT Press.
• Morton, J. B., Ezekiel, F., ve Wilk, H. A. (2011). Cognitive control: Easy to identify but hard to define. Topics in Cognitive Science, 3(2), 212–216.
• Murphy, K., Mclauchlan, S., Lee, M. (2017). Is there a link between media-multitasking and the executive functions of filtering and response ınhibition? Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 667–77.
• Navon, D., ve Gopher, D. (1979). On the economy of the human-processing system. Psychological Review, 86, 214–255.
• Nee, D. E., Wager, T. D., ve Jonides, J.(2007). Interference resolution: insights from a meta-analysis of neuroimaging tasks. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(1), 1-17.
• Norman, D. A., ve Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz ve D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in Research and Theory.(1–18). New York: Plenum Press.
• Ophir, E., Nass, C., Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (37), 15583–15587. Pashler, H. (1994). Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 116(2), 220–244.
• Posner, M. I., ve DiGirolamo, G. J. (1998). Conflict, target detection, and cognitive control. The Attentive Brain, 401-423.
• Ralph, B. C. W., Thomson, D. R., Cheyne, J. A., ve Smilek, D. (2014). Media multitasking and failures of attention in everyday life. Psychological Research, 78(5), 661–669.
• Ralph, B. C. W., Thomson, D. R., Seli, P., Carriere, J. S. A., ve Smilek, D. (2015). Media multitasking and behavioral measures of sustained attention. Attention, Perception ve Psychophysics, 77(2), 390–401.
• Ralph, B. C. W., ve Smilek, D. (2017). Individual differences in media multitasking and performance on the n-back. Attention, Perception,& Psychophysics, 79(2): 582-592.
• Ridderinkhof, K. R., ve van der Molen, M. W.(1995). A psychophysiological analysis of developmental differences in the ability to resist interference. Child Development, 66(4), 1040–1056.
• Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G., ve Rideout, V. J. (2005). Generation M: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds. California: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.
• Rubinstein, J. S., Meyer, D. E., ve Evans, J. E. (2001). Executive control of cognitive processes in task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27(4), 763–797.
• Salvucci, D. D. (2005). A multitasking general executive for compound continuous tasks. Cognitive Science, 29(3), 457–492.
• Salvucci, D. D. ve Taatgen, N. A. (2011). The multitasking mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Salvucci, D. D., ve Taatgen, N. A. (2008). Threaded cognition: An integrated theory of concurrent multitasking. Psychological Review, 115 (1), 101–130
• Salvucci, D. D., Taatgen, N. A., ve Borst, J. (2009). Toward a unified theory of the multitasking continuum: From concurrent performance to task switching, interruption, and resumption. Chi, 1819–1828.
• Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Strayer, D. L., Medeiros-Ward, N., ve Watson, J. M. (2013). Who multi-tasks and why? Multi-tasking ability, perceived multi-tasking ability, ımpulsivity, and sensation seeking. PLoS ONE, 8(1): e54402.
• Schubert, T. (2008). The central attentional limitation and executive control. Frontiers in Bioscience, 13, 3569–3580.
• Small, G. ve Vorgan, G. (2008). iBrain: Surviving the technological alteration of the modern mind, New York: HarperCollins.
• Somerville, L. H., ve Casey, B. J. (2010). Developmental neurobiology of cognitive control and motivational systems. Current opinion in neurobiology, 20(2), 236-241.
• Srivastava, J., Nakazawa, M., ve Chen, Y. W. (2016). Online, mixed, and offline media multitasking: Role of cultural, socio-demographic, and media factors. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 720–729.
• Stuss, D. T., ve Alexander, M. P. (2007). Is there a dysexecutive syndrome? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1481), 901-915.
• Telford, C. W. (1931). The refractory phase of voluntary and associative responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 14(1), 1–36.
• Tokan, F. (2011). Media as multitasking: an exploratory study on capturing audiences media multitasking and multiple media use behaviors, (Yüksek lisans tezi), School of Economics, Aalto University. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:aalto-201202231250 sitesinden alınmıştır.
• Uncapher, M. R., K Thieu, M., ve Wagner, A. D. (2016). Media multitasking and memory: Differences in working memory and long-term memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(2), 483–90.
• Van der Schuur, W. A., Baumgartner, S. E., Sumter, S. R., ve Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). The consequences of media multitasking for youth: A review. Computers in Human Behavior, 53, 204–215.
• Watson, J. M., ve Strayer, D. L. (2010). Supertaskers: Profiles in extraordinary multitasking ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(4), 479–85.
• Welford, A. T.(1952).The “Psychological refractory period” and the timing of high-speed performance: A review and a theory. British Journal of Psychology, 43(1), 2–19. Wickens, C. D. (2002). Multiple resources and performance prediction. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 3(2), 159.
• Wiradhany, W., ve Nieuwenstein, M. R. (2017). Cognitive control in media multitaskers: Two replication studies and a meta-Analysis. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 1-22.
• Yap, J. J. Y. ve Lim, S. S. W. H. (2013). Media multitasking predicts unitary versus splitting visual focal attention. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(7), 889–902.