All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 2146-7757 2757-9026 Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research, İhsan Doğramacı Peace Foundation 10.20991/allazimuth.1644600 American Studies Amerika Çalışmaları The Hegemonic Transition in Latin America: To What Extent is China Challenging US’s Hegemony? https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9595-9457 Maiza - Larrarte Andoni University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7246-8735 Bustillo - Mesanza Ricardo University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU 07 02 2025 14 2 273 294 04 09 2024 08 13 2024 Copyright © 2012, All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 2012 All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace

In this paper, we examine the geopolitical consequences of China’s enhanced engagement in Latin America. China is increasing its economic weight among Latin American countries, reinforcing its external image to counter the perception that the US is a unique relevant ally. In previous research, some authors have supported the idea that China could become a sort of neocolonial power in Latin America, substituting the hegemony of the United States. In this article, we carry out an in-depth review of Western literature and a comprehensive analysis of the bilateral relationship to discuss China’s role in the region. We apply the principles of the hegemonic stability and the power transition theories, and we also include an assessment of “soft power” components. We conclude that China is eroding US power in Latin America but is still far from becoming the new regional hegemon.

 China US Latin America hegemonic transition hegemony Acharya, Amitav. The End of American World Order. Cambridge: Polity, 2018. Akhtaruzzaman, Muhammad, Nathan Berg, and Donald Lien. “Confucius Institutes and FDI Flows from China to Africa.” China Economic Review 44, (2017): 241–52. Alfaro, Laura, Areendam Chanda, Sebnem Kalemli-Ozcan, and Selin Sayek. “Does Foreign Direct Investment Promote Growth? Exploring the Role of Financial Markets on Linkages.” Journal of Development Economics 91, no. 2 (2010): 242–56. Allison, Graham T. Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides's Trap? Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017. American Enterprise Institute. “China Global Investment Tracker.” 2021. https://www.aei.org/china-global-investment-tracker/. Armony, Ariel C., and Nicolás Velásquez. “Anti-Chinese Sentiment in Latin America: An Analysis of Online Discourse.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 20, no. 3 (September 2015): 319–46. Arrighi, Giovanni, Beverly J. Silver, and Iftikhar Ahmad. Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. Avendano, Rolando, Angel Melguizo, and Sean Miner. Chinese FDI in Latin America: New Trends with Global Implications. Washington, DC: Atlantic Council, 2017. Baier, Scott L., and Jeffrey H. Bergstrand. “Do Free Trade Agreements Actually Increase Members” International Trade?” Journal of International Economics 71, no. 1 (March 2007): 72–95. Bengoa, Marta, and Blanca Sanchez-Robles. “Foreign Direct Investment, Economic Freedom and Growth: New Evidence from Latin America.” European Journal of Political Economy 19, no. 3 (2003): 529–45. Bernal, Richard L. “The Growing Economic Presence of China in the Caribbean.” The World Economy 38, no. 9 (2015): 1409–37. Bernal-Meza, Raúl. “Introduction: Understanding China–Latin America Relations as Part of the Transition of the World Order.” In China–Latin America Relations in the 21st Century, edited by Raúl Bernal-Meza and Li Xing, 1–26. International Political Economy Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. Blanchard, Jean-Marc F. “Introduction to the Special Issue.” Asian Perspective 40, no. 4 (2016): 553–77. Broz, J. Lawrence, Zhiwen Zhang, and Gaoyang Wang. “Explaining Foreign Support for China”s Global Economic Leadership.” International Organization 74, no. 3 (2020): 417–52. Callahan, William A. “Chinese Visions of World Order: Post-Hegemonic or a New Hegemony?” International Studies Review 10, no. 4 (December 2008): 749–61. Cambero, Fabian, and Dave Sherwood. “China Invites Latin America to Take Part in One Belt, One Road.” Reuters, 23 January 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-china-idUSKBN1FB2CN/. Cardenal, Juan Pablo. “China in Latin America: Understanding the Inventory of Influence.” In Sharp Power: Rising Authoritarian Influence. Washington, DC: National Endowment for Democracy and International Forum for Democratic Studies, 2017. https://www.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Chapter1-Sharp-Power-Rising-Authoritarian-Influence-China-Latin-America.pdf. Casella, Bruno. “Looking through Conduit FDI in Search of Ultimate Investors – a Probabilistic Approach.” Transnational Corporations 26, no. 1 (15 July 2019): 109–49. CEPAL, and Naciones Unidas. “Explorando Nuevos Espacios de Cooperación Entre América Latina y El Caribe y China.” CEPAL, January 2018. https://www.cepal.org/es/publicaciones/43213-explorando-nuevos-espacios-cooperacion-america-latina-caribe-china. China Government. “China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation.” August 2013. http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2014/08/23/content_281474982986536.htm. China Government. “China”s Policy Paper on Latin America and the Caribbean.” 6 November 2008. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-11/06/content_7179488_2.htm. China Government. “Full Text: China”s International Development Cooperation in the New Era.” 10 January 2021. http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/whitepaper/202101/10/content_WS5ffa6bbbc6d0f72576943922.html. China Government. “Full Text of China”s Policy Paper on Latin America and the Caribbean.” 24 November 2016. https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2016/11/24/content_281475499069158.htm. China Ministry of Commerce. “China FTA Network.” 2024. http://fta.mofcom.gov.cn/english/fta_qianshu.shtml. China-CELAC Forum. “Beijing Declaration of the First Ministerial Meeting of the CELAC – China Forum.” 23 January 2015. http://www.chinacelacforum.org/eng/zywj_3/201501/t20150123_6475938.htm. China-CELAC Forum. “CELAC and China Joint Plan of Action for Cooperation on Priority Areas (2019–2021).” 22 January 2018. http://www.mcg.com.cn/upload/FCKeditor/file/20190411/20190411172909_1491.pdf. China-CELAC Forum. “China-Latin American and Caribbean Countries Cooperation Plan (2015-2019).” 23 January 2015. http://www.chinacelacforum.org/eng/zywj_3/201501/t20150123_6475954.htm. China-CELAC Forum. “Special Declaration of Santiago of the II Ministerial Meeting of the CELAC-China Forum on the Belt and Road Initiative.” 22 January 2018. https://www.minrel.gob.cl/minrel/site/docs/20180122/20180122175940/declaracio__n_de_santiago__ii_foro_celac_china_vf_22_01_2018.pdf. Cox, Robert W. “Gramsci, Hegemony and International Relations : An Essay in Method.” Millennium: Journal of International Studies 12, no. 2 (1983): 162–75. Cox, Robert W., and Timothy J. Sinclair. Approaches to World Order. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 1996.. Creutzfeldt, Benjamin Hans. “China y EE. UU. En Latinoamérica.” Revista Científica General José María Córdova 14, no. 17 (2016): 23. Creutzfeldt, Benjamin Hans. “China y EE. UU. En Latinoamérica.” Revista Científica General José María Córdova 14, no. 17 (2016): 23. David Singer, J. “The Level-of-Analysis Problem in International Relations.” World Politics 14, no. 1 (1961): 77–92. DiCicco, Jonathan M. “Power Transition Theory and the Essence of Revisionism.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, by Jonathan M. DiCicco. Oxford University Press, 2017. DiCicco, Jonathan M. “Whose Status Quo Is It, Anyway? Regions, Hierarchies, and Satisfaction.” In Turmoil and Order in Regional International Politics, edited by William R. Thompson and Thomas J. Volgy, 10:11–35. Evidence-Based Approaches to Peace and Conflict Studies. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. DiCicco, Jonathan M., and Jack S. Levy. “Power Shifts and Problem Shifts: The Evolution of the Power Transition Research Program.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 43, no. 6 (1999): 675–704.. Divisions Project Team, International Bar Association. “Anti-Dumping Investigations Against China in Latin America.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2010. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1555619. Dosch, Jörn, and David S. G. Goodman. “China and Latin America: Complementarity, Competition, and Globalisation.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 41, no. 1 (March 2012): 3–19. Dosch, Jörn, and David S. G. “China and Latin America: Complementarity, Competition, and Globalisation.” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 41, no. 1 (2012): 3–19. Dussel, Enrique, ed. La nueva relación comercial de América Latina y el Caribe con China. Primera edición. México, D.F: Red Académica de América Latina y el Caribe sobre China, 2016. Dussel Peters, Enrique, and Ariel C. Armony. Efectos de China en la cantidad y calidad del empleo en América Latina y el Caribe. Primera edición. Perú: Organización Internacional del Trabajo, Oficina Regional para América Latina y el Caribe, 2017. Dussel Peters, Enrique, Adrian H. Hearn, and Harley Shaiken. China and the New Triangular Relationships in the Americas: China and the Future of US-Mexico Relations. México D.F.: University of Miami. Center for Latin American Studies : University of California. Center for Latin American Studies : Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Centro de Estudios China-México, 2013. Ellis, Robert Evan. China-Latin America Military Engagement: Good Will, Good Business, and Strategic Position. SSI Monograph. Carlisle, Pennsylvania: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 2011. Ellis, Robert Evan. “Chinese Soft Power in Latin America: A Case Study.” Joint Force Quarterly 60, 1st Quarter (2011): 85–91. Flores-Macías, Gustavo A., and Sarah E. Kreps. “The Foreign Policy Consequences of Trade: China”s Commercial Relations with Africa and Latin America, 1992–2006.” The Journal of Politics 75, no. 2 (2013): 357–71. Friedman, Edward. “Where Is Chinese Nationalism? The Political Geography of a Moving Project.” Nations and Nationalism 14, no. 4 (2008): 721–38. Gallagher, Kevin P., and Margaret Myers. “China-Latin America Finance Database.” 2021. https://www.thedialogue.org/map_list/. Garcia, Maria. “Resources and Trade: Linking the Pacific through Bilateral Free Trade Agreements (FTA).” Journal of World Trade 47, no. Issue 2 (2013): 329–57. Germain, Randall D., and Michael Kenny. “Engaging Gramsci: International Relations Theory and the New Gramscians.” Review of International Studies 24, no. 1 (1998): 3–21. Gerschenkron, Alexander. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays. Cambridge: Belknap Pr, 1979. Gilpin, Robert. “The Theory of Hegemonic War.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 591. Gramsci, Antonio. The Prison Notebooks. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971. Gu, Jing, Richard Carey, Alex Shankland, and Anuradha Chenoy. “Introduction: International Development, South-South Cooperation and the Rising Powers.” In The BRICS in International Development, edited by Jing Gu, Alex Shankland, and Anuradha Chenoy, 1–24. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016. Hagström, Linus, and Astrid H M Nordin. “China”s “Politics of Harmony” and the Quest for Soft Power in International Politics.” International Studies Review 22, no. 3 (1 September 2020): 507–25. Hartig, Falk. “How China Understands Public Diplomacy: The Importance of National Image for National Interests.” International Studies Review, (2016): 655-680. Ikenberry, G. John. After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars, New Edition. Princeton University Press, 2019. Jinping, Xi. “Jointly Write a New Chapter in the Partnership of Comprehensive Cooperation Between China and Latin America and the Caribbean.” 8 January 2015. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/mfa_eng/xw/zyjh/202405/t20240530_11340816.htm. Jintao, Hu. “Full Text of Hu Jintao”s Report at 17th Party Congress.” China Daily, 24 October 2007. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-10/24/content_6204564.htm. Joseph, Jonathan. “The Hegemony of Governmentality: Towards a Research Agenda.” All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace 6, no. 2 (2017): 5–18. Kaplinsky, Raphael, and Mike Morris. “Chinese FDI in Sub-Saharan Africa: Engaging with Large Dragons.” In The Power of the Chinese Dragon, edited by Spencer Henson and O. Fiona Yap, 123–48. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016. Keohane, Robert O. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. 1. Princeton classic ed. Princeton Paperbacks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984. Keohane, Robert O.. The Theory of Hegemonic Stability Changes in International Economic Regimes, 1967 - 1977. ACIS Working Paper 22. Los Angeles: Center for Internat. and Strategic Affairs, Univ. of California, 1980. Kindleberger, Charles P. “Dominance and Leadership in the International Economy: Exploitation, Public Goods, and Free Rides.” International Studies Quarterly 25, no. 2 (1981): 242. Kindleberger, Charles P. The World in Depression, 1929-1939. History of the World Economy in the Twentieth Century, v. 4. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Koleski, Katherine, and Alec Blivas. “China's Engagement with Latin America and the Caribbean.” US-China Economic and Security Review Commission. Staff Research Report., 17 October 2018. https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/China's%20Engagement%20with%20Latin%20America%20and%20the%20Caribbean_.pdf. Lardy, Nicholas R. “China: Toward a Consumption-Driven Growth Path.” In Seeking Changes, by Yanhui Zhou, 85–111. Joint Imprint with Central Compilation and Translation Press, China, 2016. Layne, Christopher. “The US–Chinese Power Shift and the End of the Pax Americana.” International Affairs 94, no. 1 (2018): 89–111. Lebow, Richard Ned, and Benjamin Valentino. “Lost in Transition: A Critical Analysis of Power Transition Theory.” International Relations 23, no. 3 (2009): 389–410. Li, He. “Rivalry between Taiwan and the PRC in Latin America.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 10, no. 2 (2005): 77–102. Li, Minqi. The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World-Economy. London: Pluto, 2008. Lien, Donald, Sucharita Ghosh, and Steven Yamarik. “Does the Confucius Institute Impact International Travel to China? A Panel Data Analysis.” Applied Economics 46, no. 17 (2014): 1985–95. Lien, Donald, Chang Hoon Oh, and W. Travis Selmier. “Confucius Institute Effects on China”s Trade and FDI: Isn”t It Delightful When Folks Afar Study Hanyu?” International Review of Economics & Finance 21, no. 1 (2012): 147–55. Ling, L. H. M. The Dao of World Politics: Towards a Post-Westphalian, Worldist International Relations. London ; New York: Routledge, taylor & Francis Group, 2014. Liu, Ming-Hua, Dimitris Margaritis, and Yang Zhang. “The Global Financial Crisis and the Export-Led Economic Growth in China.” The Chinese Economy 52, no. 3 (4 May 2019): 232–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/10971475.2018.1548144. MacDonald, Stuart, Dr Son, and Professor Singh. Soft Power Today Measuring the Influences and Effects, 2017. Mares, David R. “Middle Powers under Regional Hegemony: To Challenge or Acquiesce in Hegemonic Enforcement.” International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 4 (1988): 453. Mazza, Jacqueline. “Chinese Migration to Latin America and the Caribbean.” The Dialogue, October 2016. https://www.thedialogue.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Chinese_Migration_to_LAC_Mazza-1.pdf. Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: Norton, 2001. Mukherjee, Rohan. Ascending Order: Rising Powers and the Politics of Status in International Institutions. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 2022. Myers, Margaret, and Kevin P. Gallagher. “Down but Not Out: Chinese Development Finance in LAC, 2017.” InterAmerican Dialogue and Boston University Global Economic Governance Initiative, March 2018. https://www.thedialogue.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Chinese-Finance-to-LAC-2017-Updated.pdf. Nordin, Astrid H. M., and Mikael Weissmann. “Will Trump Make China Great Again? The Belt and Road Initiative and International Order.” International Affairs 94, no. 2 (2018): 231–49. Nye, Joseph S. “Does China Have Feet of Clay?.” 4 April 2019. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/five-key-weaknesses-in-china-by-joseph-s--nye-2019-04. Nye, Joseph S. “Get Smart: Combining Hard and Soft Power.” In Soft Power and Great-Power Competition, by Joseph S. Nye, 63–66. China and Globalization. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. Nye, Joseph S. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. 1st ed. New York: Public Affairs, 2004. Nyíri, Pál. “The Yellow Man”s Burden: Chinese Migrants on a Civilizing Mission.” The China Journal 56 (2006): 83–106. OECD, CAF Development Bank of Latin America, and Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Latin American Economic Outlook 2016: Towards a New Partnership with China. Latin American Economic Outlook. OECD, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264246218-en. Oppenheimer, Andrés. “China Is Eating America's Lunch in Latin America — and Trump Is Helping.” Miami Herald, 21 December 2017. https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/news-columns-blogs/andres-oppenheimer/article191041634.html. Organski, A. F. K. World Politics. Alfred A. Knopf. New York, 1958. Organski, Abramo F. K., and Jacek Kugler. The War Ledger. Nachdr. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1991. Oviedo, Eduardo Daniel. “Déficit Comercial, Desequilibrio Financiero e Inicio de La Dependencia Del Capital Chino.” In La Tentación Pragmática. China- Argentina/ América Latina: Lo Actual, Lo Próximo y Lo Distante, Sáenz Peña., 273–98. Buenos Aires: EDUNTREF, 2016. Pass, Jonathan. American Hegemony in the 21st Century: A Neo Neo-Gramscian Perspective. New York: Routledge, 2020. Pew Research Center. “China”s Economic Growth Mostly Welcomed in Emerging Markets, but Neighbors Wary of Its Influence.” December 2019. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2019/12/PG_2019.12.05_Balance-of-Power_FINAL.pdf. Pew Research Center. “Trump”s International Ratings Remain Low, Especially Among Key Allies.” October 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/10/Pew-Research-Center_U-S-Image-Report_UPDATED_2018-10-01.pdf. Piccone, Ted. “The Geopolitics of China”s Rise in Latin America.” Geoeconomics and Global Issues. Paper 2 (November 2016). https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/the-geopolitics-of-chinas-rise-in-latin-america_ted-piccone.pdf. Ramo, Joshua Cooper. The Beijing Consensus. London: Foreign Policy Centre, 2005. Rawnsley, Gary D. “Communicating Confidence.” In Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, by Nancy Snow and Nicholas J. Cull, 284–300. New York, NY: Routledge, 2020. Serrano Moreno, Juan Enrique, Diego Telias, and Francisco Urdinez. “Deconstructing the Belt and Road Initiative in Latin America.” Asian Education and Development Studies 10, no. 3 (2021): 337–47. Slipak, Ariel M. “América Latina Ante China: ¿Transición Del Consenso de Washington al Consenso de Beijing?” Argentina, n.d. http://cdes.org.ec/web/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/America_Latina_ante_China_Transicion_del-1.pdf. Song, Guoyou, and Wen Jin Yuan. “China”s Free Trade Agreement Strategies.” The Washington Quarterly 35, no. 4 (2012): 107–19. Sullivan, Mark P., and Thomas Lum. “China”s Engagement with Latin America and the Caribbean.” U.S. Congressional Research Service. IF10982., 2019. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF10982/13. Taiwan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Taiwan - Diplomatic Allies.” 2022. https://en.mofa.gov.tw/AlliesIndex.aspx?n=1294&sms=1007. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. “Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2017 Revision..” 2017. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/docs/MigrationStockDocumentation_2017.pdf. Urdinez, Francisco, and Gilmar Masiero. “China and the WTO: Will the Market Economy Status Make Any Difference after 2016?” The Chinese Economy 48, no. 2 (2015): 155–72. Urdinez, Francisco, Fernando Mouron, Luis L. Schenoni, and Amâncio J. De Oliveira. “Chinese Economic Statecraft and U.S. Hegemony in Latin America: An Empirical Analysis, 2003–2014.” Latin American Politics and Society 58, no. 4 (2016): 3–30. Urdinez, Francisco, Fernando Mouron, Luis L. Schenoni, and Amâncio J. De Oliveira. “Chinese Economic Statecraft and U.S. Hegemony in Latin America: An Empirical Analysis, 2003–2014.” Latin American Politics and Society 58, no. 4 (2016): 3–30. US Agency for International Development. “US Overseas Loans and Grants. Obligations and Loan Authorizations. July 1, 1945 – September 30, 2017.” 2017. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pbaaj725.pdf. US Bureau of Commerce. “U.S. Direct Investment Abroad: Direct Investment Position on a Historical-Cost Basis by Detailed Country, 2009–2019.” 2021. https://apps.bea.gov/international/xls/usdia-current/usdia-detailedcountry-2009-2019.xlsx. US Government, The White House. “National Security Strategy of the United States of America.” 18 December 2017. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf. U.S.-China Economic And Security Review Commission. “2021 Report to Congress of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission.” 1 December 2021. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GPO-USCC-2021/summary. Vázquez, Francisco. “Ecuador and China Conclude Free Trade Agreement Negotiations.” The Diplomat, 5 January 2023. https://thediplomat.com/2023/01/ecuador-and-china-conclude-free-trade-agreement-negotiations/. Walker, Christopher. “What Is “Sharp Power”?” Journal of Democracy 29, no. 3 (2018): 9–23. Wallerstein, Immanuel Maurice. The Politics of the World-Economy: The States, the Movements, and the Civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Watson, Cynthia. “China's Use of the Military Instrument in Latin America: Not yet the Biggest Stick.” Journal of International Affairs 66, no. 2 (2013): 101–11. Wen Jiabao. “Trusted Friends Forever. Address by Premier Wen Jiabao at the UN ECLAC.” 19 July 2012. http://www.china.org.cn/world/2012-06/27/content_25752050.htm. Wendt, Alexander. “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics.” International Organization 46, no. 2 (1992): 391–425. Wendt, Alexander. Social Theory of International Politics. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Wendt, Alexander E. “The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory.” International Organization 41, no. 3 (1987): 335–70. Wignaraja, Ganeshan, Dorothea Ramizo, and Luca Burmeister. “Asia-Latin America Free Trade Agreements: An Instrument for Inter-Regional Liberalization and Integration?” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2012. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2151818. Wise, Carol. “Playing Both Sides of the Pacific: Latin America”s Free Trade Agreements with China.” Pacific Affairs 89, no. 1 (1 March 2016): 75–100. https://doi.org/10.5509/201689175. Wise, Carol, and Victoria Chonn Ching. “Conceptualizing China–Latin America Relations in the Twenty-First Century: The Boom, the Bust, and the Aftermath.” The Pacific Review 31, no. 5 (3 September 2018): 553–72. Xiang, Jun, and Wei-hao Huang. “What Determines China”s Allocation of Confucius Institute: Educational, Political, or Economic Interest?” Denver, Colorado, 2015. https://aacs.ccny.cuny.edu/2015conference/Papers/Huang%20Wei-Hao.pdf. Xiaoping, Deng. “Speech By Chairman of the Delegation of the People”s Republic of China, Deng Xiaoping, At the Special Session of the U.N. General Assembly.” 10 April 1974. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/deng-xiaoping/1974/04/10.htm. Xinhua News. “Xi: China to Promote Cultural Soft Power.” 1 January 2014. http://www.china.org.cn/china/2014-01/01/content_31059390.htm. Xinhuanet. “China Will Not “Export” Chinese Model: Xi.” 1 December 2017. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-12/01/c_136793833.htm. Xu, Chensheng, Feng Yao, Fan Zhang, and Yonghong Wang. “An Investigation of Confucius Institute”s Effects on China”s OFDI via Cultural Difference and Institutional Quality.” Journal of Asia Business Studies 14, no. 3 (24 January 2020): 241–63. Yang, Jian. “China”s Competitive FTA Strategy: Realism on a Liberal Slide.” In Competitive Regionalism, edited by Mireya Solís, Barbara Stallings, and Saori N. Katada, 216–35. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2009. Zhao, Tingyang. “Rethinking Empire from a Chinese Concept “All-under-Heaven” (Tian-Xia,).” Social Identities 12, no. 1 (January 2006): 29–41.