CARBON TAX, EMISSION TRADING SYSTEM AND CARBON BORDER REGULATION: ASSESSMENTS FOR TÜRKİYE

Year 2024, Volume: 25 Issue: 3, 518 - 541, 29.09.2024

Hakan Özdemir , Merve Köse

https://doi.org/10.53443/anadoluibfd.1464955

Abstract

Population growth and rapid consumption of natural resources after the industrial revolution have led to global warming and climate change. This situation has made it necessary to fight climate change. The first step is to reduce carbon emissions. This aims to reduce the negative effects of greenhouse gas emissions and prevent climate change. Carbon pricing mechanisms have been developed to achieve this goal. However, failure to use these mechanisms may adversely affect international competition. For this reason, the European Union has established a carbon border adjustment mechanism. Turkey does not yet apply carbon pricing, but studies on this issue are ongoing. As a result, the European Union's carbon border adjustment mechanism is seen as an incentive and opportunity for Turkey. Turkey's work is focused on the emissions trading system, but it is considered that there should also be a focus on the carbon tax.

Keywords

Border Adjustment Mechanism, Carbon Tax, Emission Trading System, Green Tax

KARBON VERGİSİ, EMİSYON TİCARET SİSTEMİ VE SINIRDA KARBON DÜZENLEMESİ: TÜRKİYE AÇISINDAN DEĞERLENDİRMELER

Abstract

Sanayi devrimi sonrası nüfus artışı ve doğal kaynakların hızlı tüketimi, küresel ısınma ve iklim değişikliğine yol açmıştır. Bu durum, iklim değişikliğiyle mücadeleyi zorunlu kılmıştır. İlk adım, karbon emisyonlarını azaltmaktır. Bu, sera gazı salımının olumsuz etkilerini azaltmayı ve iklim değişikliğini önlemeyi amaçlar. Karbon fiyatlandırma mekanizmaları, bu amacı gerçekleştirmek için geliştirilmiştir. Ancak, bu mekanizmaların kullanılmaması, uluslararası rekabeti olumsuz etkileyebilir. Bu nedenle, Avrupa Birliği (AB) sınırda karbon düzenleme mekanizmasını oluşturmuştur. Türkiye, henüz karbon fiyatlandırması uygulamamaktadır, ancak bu konuda çalışmalar devam etmektedir. Sonuç olarak, Avrupa Birliği’nin sınırda karbon düzenleme mekanizması, Türkiye için bir teşvik ve fırsat olarak görülmektedir. Türkiye’nin çalışmaları, emisyon ticaret sistemine odaklanmıştır, ancak karbon vergisi üzerine de odaklanılması gerektiği değerlendirilmektedir.

Keywords

Sınırda Karbon Düzenleme Mekanizması, Karbon Vergisi, Emisyon Ticaret Sistemi, Yeşil Vergi

References

• Aldy, J. E. (2015). Pricing climate risk mitigation. Nature Climate Change, 5(5), 396-398. doi:10.1038/nclimate2540
• Aldy, J. E., & Stavins, R. N. (2012). The promise and problems of pricing carbon: Theory and experience. The Journal of Environment & Development, 21(2), 152-180.
• Aliusta, H., Yilmaz, B., & Kırlıoğlu, H. (2016). Küresel ısınmayı önleme sürecinde uygulanan piyasa temelli iktisadi araçlar: Karbon ticareti ve karbon vergisi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 12(12), 382-401.
• Ameli, N., Dessens, O., Winning, M., Cronin, J., Chenet, H., Drummond, P., Calzadilla, A., Anandarajah, G., & Grubb, M. (2021). Higher cost of finance exacerbates a climate investment trap in developing economies. Nature Communications, 12(1), 1-12.
• Andrew, R. M., Davis, S. J., & Peters, G. P. (2013). Climate policy and dependence on traded carbon. Environmental Research Letters, 8(3), 034011.
• Artun, E. S. (2024). Karbon vergisinin Türkiye’de yenilenebilir enerjiye yönlendirme aracı olarak kullanılması [Carbon tax as a tool for optimization of renewable energy in Türkiye]. Yaşar Hukuk Dergisi, 6(1), 15-48.
• Baranzini, A., Van den Bergh, J. C., Carattini, S., Howarth, R. B., Padilla, E., & Roca, J. (2017). Carbon pricing in climate policy: Seven reasons, complementary instruments, and political economy considerations. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 8(4), e462.
• Barnes, A. (2021). The challenges and prospects for carbon pricing in Europe. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.
• Bättig, M. B., & Bernauer, T. (2009). National institutions and global public goods: Are democracies more cooperative in climate change policy? International Organization, 63(2), 281-308. doi:10.1017/S0020818309090092
• Bellora, C., & Fontagné, L. (2023). Eu in search of a carbon border adjustment mechanism. Energy Economics, 123, 106673.
• Biedenkopf, K., Müller, P., Slominski, P., & Wettestad, J. (2017). A global turn to greenhouse gas emissions trading? Experiments, actors, and diffusion. Global Environmental Politics, 17(3), 1-11. MIT Press One Rogers Street, Cambridge, MA 02142-1209, USA journals-info.
• Böhm, S., Misoczky, M. C., & Moog, S. (2012). Greening capitalism? A marxist critique of carbon markets. Organization Studies, 33(11), 1617-1638. doi:10.1177/0170840612463326
• Böhmelt, T., Böker, M., & Ward, H. (2016). Democratic inclusiveness, climate policy outputs, and climate policy outcomes. Democratization, 23(7), 1272-1291. doi:10.1080/13510347.2015.1094059
• Böhringer, C., Bye, B., Fæhn, T., & Rosendahl, K. E. (2017). Targeted carbon tariffs: Export response, leakage and welfare. Resource and Energy Economics, 50, 51-73.
• Brondolo, J. D. (2009). Collecting taxes during an economic crisis: Challenges and policy options. IMF Staff Position Notes, 2009(017).
• Burnell, P. (2012). Democracy, democratization and climate change: Complex relationships. Democratization, 19(5), 813-842. doi:10.1080/13510347.2012.709684
• Cary, M. (2020). Molecules of inefficiency: How tariffs impact carbon intensities, carbon dioxide emissions, and the environment. Science of the total environment, 713, 136531.
• Chen, C., & Zeckhauser, R. (2018). Collective action in an asymmetric world. Journal of Public Economics, 158, 103-112.
• Clulow, Z. (2019). Democracy, electoral systems and emissions: Explaining when and why democratization promotes mitigation. Climate Policy, 19(2), 244-257. doi:10.1080/14693062.2018.1497938
• Douenne, T., & Fabre, A. (2020). French attitudes on climate change, carbon taxation and other climate policies. Ecological Economics, 169, 106496.
• Drake, D. F. (2018). Carbon tariffs: Effects in settings with technology choice and foreign production cost advantage. Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, 20(4), 667-686.
• EC. (2024). European commission - carbon border adjustment mechanism. https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism_en adresinden erişildi.
• Edenhofer, O., Jakob, M., Creutzig, F., Flachsland, C., Fuss, S., Kowarsch, M., Lessmann, K., Mattauch, L., Siegmeier, J., & Steckel, J. C. (2015). Closing the emission price gap. Global Environmental Change, 31, 132-143. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.01.003
• Elkins, P., & Baker, T. (2001). Carbon taxes and carbon emissions trading. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15(3), 325-376. doi:10.1111/1467-6419.00142
• Fang, Y., Yu, Y., Shi, Y., & Liu, J. (2020). The effect of carbon tariffs on global emission control: A global supply chain model. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 133, 101818.
• Felli, R. (2015). Environment, not planning: The neoliberal depoliticisation of environmental policy by means of emissions trading. Environmental Politics, 24(5), 641-660.
• Garcia-Muniesa, J. (2019). Economic crisis and support for progressive taxation in europe. European Societies, 21(2), 256-279. doi:10.1080/14616696.2018.1547836
• Goulder, L. H., & Schein, A. R. (2013). Carbon taxes versus cap and trade: A critical review. Climate Change Economics, 4(03), 1350010.
• Gu, R., Guo, J., Huang, Y., & Wu, X. (2023). Impact of the eu carbon border adjustment mechanism on economic growth and resources supply in the basic countries. Resources Policy, 85, 104034. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.104034
• Ha-Duong, M., Grubb, M. J., & Hourcade, J.-C. (1997). Influence of socioeconomic inertia and uncertainty on optimal co2-emission abatement. Nature, 390(6657), 270-273.
• He, K., & Wang, L. (2017). A review of energy use and energy-efficient technologies for the iron and steel industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 70, 1022-1039.
• Jenkins, J. D. (2014). Political economy constraints on carbon pricing policies: What are the implications for economic efficiency, environmental efficacy, and climate policy design? Energy Policy, 69, 467-477. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2014.02.003
• Ji, C.-J., Hu, Y.-J., & Tang, B.-J. (2018). Research on carbon market price mechanism and influencing factors: A literature review. Natural Hazards, 92, 761-782.
• Kammerer, M., & Namhata, C. (2018). What drives the adoption of climate change mitigation policy? A dynamic network approach to policy diffusion. Policy Sciences, 51(4), 477-513.
• Karakaya, E., Akkoyun, G., & Hiçyılmaz, B. (2023). Sera gazı emisyonu azaltımı için karbonun fiyatlanması: Karbon vergisi mi emisyon ticareti mi? Ekonomi Politika ve Finans Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(4), 813-841.
• Levi, S., Flachsland, C., & Jakob, M. (2020). Political economy determinants of carbon pricing. Global Environmental Politics, 20(2), 128-156.
• Limberg, J. (2020). Banking crises and the modern tax state. Socio-Economic Review, 20(1), 29-54. doi:10.1093/ser/mwz055
• Lin, B., & Wesseh Jr, P. K. (2020). On the economics of carbon pricing: Insights from econometric modeling with industry-level data. Energy Economics, 86, 104678.
• Lin, B., & Yang, M. (2023). Choosing the right policy: Factors influencing the preferences of consumption-side personal carbon reduction policies. Journal of Environmental Management, 326, 116706. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116706
• López-Cariboni, S., & Cao, X. (2015). Import competition and policy diffusion. Politics & Society, 43(4), 471-502. doi:10.1177/0032329215602888
• Ma, L., Hong, Y., & Chen, X. (2022). Can green economy and ecological welfare achieve synergistic development? The perspective of the “two mountains” theory. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), 6460.
• Marsh, D., & Sharman, J. C. (2009). Policy diffusion and policy transfer. Policy Studies, 30(3), 269-288. doi:10.1080/01442870902863851
• McKitrick, R. (2016). A practical guide to the economics of carbon pricing. SPP Research Papers, 9(28).
• Metcalf, G. E., & Weisbach, D. (2009). The design of a carbon tax. Harv. Envtl. L. Rev., 33, 499.
• Montgomery, W. D. (1972). Markets in licenses and efficient pollution control programs. Journal of Economic Theory, 5(3), 395-418.
• Mörsdorf, G. (2022). A simple fix for carbon leakage? Assessing the environmental effectiveness of the eu carbon border adjustment. Energy Policy, 161, 112596.
• Narassimhan, E., Gallagher, K. S., Koester, S., & Alejo, J. R. (2017). Carbon pricing in practice: A review of the evidence. Climate Policy Lab Medford, MA, USA.
• Narassimhan, E., Gallagher, K. S., Koester, S., & Alejo, J. R. (2018). Carbon pricing in practice: A review of existing emissions trading systems. Climate Policy, 18(8), 967-991. doi:10.1080/14693062.2018.1467827
• Overland, I., & Sabyrbekov, R. (2022). Know your opponent: Which countries might fight the european carbon border adjustment mechanism? Energy Policy, 169, 113175.
• Parry, I. W., Black, S., & Zhunussova, K. (2022). Carbon taxes or emissions trading systems?: Instrument choice and design. Staff Climate Notes, 2022(006).
• Perdana, S., & Vielle, M. (2022). Making the eu carbon border adjustment mechanism acceptable and climate friendly for least developed countries. Energy Policy, 170, 113245.
• Pollitt, M. G. (2019). A global carbon market? Frontiers of Engineering Management, 6(1), 5-18. doi:10.1007/s42524-019-0011-x
• Raymond, L. (2019). Policy perspective: Building political support for carbon pricing—lessons from cap-and-trade policies. Energy Policy, 134, 110986.
• Sapmaz, H. (2023). Karbon vergisinin Türkiye'de uygulanabilirliği. Uluslararası Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 8(3), 1-10.
• Steckel, J. C., Jakob, M., Flachsland, C., Kornek, U., Lessmann, K., & Edenhofer, O. (2017). From climate finance toward sustainable development finance. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 8(1), e437.
• Steinebach, Y., Fernández-i-Marín, X., & Aschenbrenner, C. (2021). Who puts a price on carbon, why and how? A global empirical analysis of carbon pricing policies. Climate Policy, 21(3), 277-289. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1824890
• Şahin, I. F. O., & Çiftçi, T. E. (2021). İklim değişikliği ile mücadelede türkiye için karbon vergisi önerisi. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 16(2), 254-269.
• TB. (2022). Yeşil mutabakat çalışma grubu faaliyet raporu 2022. https://ticaret.gov.tr/data/643ffd6a13b8767b208ca8e4/YMEP%202022%20Faaliyet%20Raporu.pdf adresinden erişildi. (Erişim tarihi: 13.03.2024).
• TB. (2024). T.C Ticaret Bakanlığı - AB sınırda karbon düzenleme mekanizması sunumu. https://ticaret.gov.tr/data/66040b6613b876cad0db94ae/Ticaret%20Bakanl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1%20SKDM%20Sunumu_25032024.pdf adresinden erişildi. (Erişim tarihi: 10.03.2024).
• TCÇŞHİDB. (2024). İklimi korumanın bedeli. https://csb.gov.tr/iklimi-korumanin-bedeli-makale adresinden erişildi. (Erişim tarihi: 15.03.2024).
• Thisted, E. V., & Thisted, R. V. (2020). The diffusion of carbon taxes and emission trading schemes: The emerging norm of carbon pricing. Environmental Politics, 29(5), 804-824.
• Twomey, P. (2012). Rationales for additional climate policy instruments under a carbon price. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 23(1), 7-30.
• Ubay, B., & Bilgici, Y. (2021). Karbon fiyatlandırmasında emisyon ticaret sistemi ve önemi. Kırklareli Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(1), 47-72.
• van den Bergh, J. (2015). Pricing would limit carbon rebound. Nature, 526(7572), 195-195.
• WB. (2023). State and trends of carbon pricing 2023. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstreams/bdd449bb-c298-4eb7-a794-c80bfe209f4a/download adresinden erişildi. (Erişim tarihi: 03.03.2024).
• Wettestad, J., & Gulbrandsen, L. H. (2017). The evolution of carbon markets: Design and diffusion. Routledge.
• Worrell, E., Van Berkel, R., Fengqi, Z., Menke, C., Schaeffer, R., & Williams, R. O. (2001). Technology transfer of energy efficient technologies in industry: A review of trends and policy issues. Energy Policy, 29(1), 29-43.
• YB. (2024). Yeşil büyüme emisyon ticaret sistemi’nin gözden geçirilmesi. https://yesilbuyume.org/emisyon-ticaret-sisteminin-gozden-gecirilmesi/ adresinden erişildi. (Erişim tarihi: 28.02.2024).
• YMEP. (2021). Yeşil mutabakat eylem planı. Ankara: Ticaret Bakanlığı
• Zhou, W., Zhu, B., Li, Q., Ma, T., Hu, S., & Griffy-Brown, C. (2010). Co2 emissions and mitigation potential in china’s ammonia industry. Energy Policy, 38(7), 3701-3709.