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Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Krom (K2Cr2O7) ile Oluşturulan Oksidatif Hasara Goji Berry’nin Koruyucu Etkileri

Year 2021, Volume: 10 Issue: 3, 784 - 795, 17.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.904623

Abstract

Goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) antioksidan özellikleri sayesinde son zamanlarda kullanılan fonksiyonel gıdalar arasında yer almaktadır. Anti-oksidatif, kardiyo-protektif, nöro-protektif, anti-diyabet, anti-kanser ve anti-tümör özelliklerinin yanı sıra daha birçok hastalığın tedavisinde koruyucu rol oynadığı bilinmektedir. Bu çalışmada 4 grup oluşturulmuştur. Gruplar; (1) Kontrol grubu; (2) Goji berry Grubu (%10); (3) Krom (K2Cr2O7) Grubu (10 mM); (4) Goji berry (% 10) + Krom (K2Cr2O7) (10 mM) Grubu. Saccharomyces cerevisiae kültürleri 1h, 3h, 5h ve 24h boyunca 30 °C'de geliştirilmiştir. Malondialdehit (MDA) düzeyleri, katalaz aktivite tayini (CAT), glutatyon (GSH) seviyeleri ve hücre gelişimi spektrofotometre ile ölçülmüştür. SDS-PAGE elektroforez analizi ile total protein değişiklikleri tespit edilmiş ve bradford metodu ile hesaplanmıştır. Çalışma sonuçlarımıza göre; Krom (K2Cr2O7) grubu ile kıyaslandığında, Goji berry + Krom (K2Cr2O7) grubunda hücre gelişimi (1h, 3h, 5h ve 24h, total protein sentezi (24h), GSH seviyeleri (24h) ve katalaz aktiviteleri (24h) artarken, MDA düzeyi (24h) azalış göstermiştir. Sonuç olarak, Goji berry yaprağı’nın S. cerevisiae kültüründe Krom (K2Cr2O7) kaynaklı oksidatif hasarı azaltarak, total protein sentezini olumlu yönde arttırdığı belirlenmiştir. Goji berry yaprağı tedavisinin hücre gelişimi ve büyümesinde teşvik edici bir role sahip olduğu tespit edilmiştir.

References

  • [1] Karakas F.P. 2020. Efficient Plant Regeneration And Callus Induction From Nodal And Hypocotyl Explants of Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.) And Comparison of Phenolic Profiles in Calli Formed Under Different Combinations of Plant Growth Regulators. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 146: 384-391.
  • [2] Hu C.K., Lee Y.J., Colitz C.M., Chang C.J., Lin C.T. 2012. The Protective Effects Of Lycium Barbarum And Chrysanthemum Morifolum on Diabetic Retinopathies in Rats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 15: 65-71.
  • [3] Chao J.C., Chiang S.W., Wang C.C., Tsai Y.H., Wu M.S. 2006. Hot Water-Extracted Lycium Barbarum And Rehmannia Glutinosa Inhibit Proliferation And Induce Apoptosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG, 12 (28): 4478.
  • [4] Fan X.J., Zhang B., Yan H., Feng J.T., Ma Z.Q., Zhang X. 2019. Effect of Lotus Leaf Extract Incorporated Composite Coating on The Postharvest Quality of Fresh Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 148: 132-140.
  • [5] Rodrigues F.T., Koike A.C.R., Silva P.G., Negrão B.G., Alencar S.M., Mancini Filho J., Villavicencio A.L.C. 2021. Effects of Electron Beam Irradiation on The Bioactive Components of Goji-Berry. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 179: 109144.
  • [6] Donno D., Beccaro G.L., Mellano M.G., Cerutti A.K., Bounous G. 2015. Goji berry fruit (Lycium spp.): Antioxidant Compound Fingerprint and Bioactivity Evaluation. Journal of functional foods, 18: 1070-1085.
  • [7] Şengün P. 2019. Goji Berry (Lycium Barbarum L.) Meyvelerinin Olgunlaşma Evreleri ve Kurutulma Sürecinde Karotenoid Kompozisyonunundaki Değişim. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Denizli.
  • [8] Samar E. 2019. Goji Berry Tüketiminin Boksörlerde Kilo Kaybı Üzerine Etkisi. Doktora Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sakarya.
  • [9] Aslan A., Gök Ö., Erman O. 2017. The Protective Effect of Kiwi Fruit Extract Against to Chromium Effect on Protein Expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Progress in Nutrition, 19 (4): 472-478.
  • [10] Aslan A., Gök Ö., Beyaz S. 2019. Üzüm Çekirdeği Ekstraktının Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Oluşturulan Hidrojen Peroksit Hasarına Karşı Koruyucu Etkisi. Iğdır Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9 (4): 2216-2224.
  • [11] Laemmli U.K. 1970. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227: 680-685.
  • [12] Aslan A., Gok O., Erman O., Kuloglu T. 2018. Ellagic Acid Impedes Carbontetrachloride-Induced Liver Damage in Rats Through Suppression of NF-kB, Bcl-2 and Regulating Nrf-2 and Caspase Pathway. Biomed Pharmacother, 105: 662-669.
  • [13] Aslan A., Beyaz S., Gök Ö. 2019. Domates Ekstraktının Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Oluşturulan Krom Hasarına Karşı Koruyucu Etkisi. Erzincan Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 12 (2): 1048-1055.
  • [14] Beyaz S., Dalkılıç L.K., Gök Ö., Aslan A. 2020. Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Hidrojen Peroksit ile Oluşturulan Oksidatif Hasara Karşı Karadut (Morus nigra L.) ve Kızılcık (Cornus mas L.)’ın Bazı Moleküler Biyolojik ve Biyokimyasal Parametreler Üzerine Etkisi. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 9 (3): 1134-1144.
  • [15] Erol C. 2020. Akut Romatizmal Ateşli Hastalarda Serum Malondialdehit Asit, Superoksit Dismutaz, Katalaz, Redükte Glutatyon ve Glutatyon Peroksidaz Aktivitelerinin İncelenmesi. Uzmanlık Tezi, Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Tıp Fakültesi, Van.
  • [16] Aslan A., Gok O., Beyaz S., Ağca C.A., Erman O., Zerek A. 2020. Ellagic Acid Prevents Kidney Injury and Oxidative Damage via Regulation of Nrf-2/NF-κB Signaling in Carbon Tetrachloride Induced Rats. Molecular Biology Reports, 47 (10): 7959–7970.
  • [17] Masci A., Carradori S., Casadei M.A., Paolicelli P., Petralito S., Ragno R., Cesa S. 2018. Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides: Extraction, Purification, Structural Characterisation and Evidence About Hypoglycaemic and Hypolipidaemic Effects. A Review. Food Chemistry, 254: 377-389.
  • [18] Tian X., Liang T., Liu Y., Ding G., Zhang F., Ma Z. 2019. Extraction, Structural Characterization, and Biological Functions of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides: A Review. Biomolecules, 9 (9): 389.
  • [19] Chan H.H.L., Lam H.I., Choi K.Y., Li S.Z.C., Lakshmanan Y., Yu W.Y., Chang R.C., Lai J.S., So K.F. 2019. Delay of Cone Degeneration in Retinitis Pigmentosa Using a 12-Month Treatment with Lycium barbarum Supplement. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 236: 336-344.
  • [20] Amagase H., Nance D.M. 2011. Lycium barbarum Increases Caloric Expenditure and Decreases Waist Circumference in Healthy Overweight Men and Women: Pilot Study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 30 (5): 304-309.
  • [21] Chiancone F., Carrino M., Meccariello C., Pucci L., Fedelini M., Fedelini P. 2019. The use of a Combination of Vaccinium Macracarpon, Lycium barbarum L. and Probiotics (Bifiprost®) for the Prevention of Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis: A Double-Blind Randomized Study. Urologia Internationalis, 103 (4): 423-426.
  • [22] Cai H., Liu F., Zuo P., Huang G., Song Z., Wang T., Lu H., Guo F., Han C., Sun G. 2015. Practical Application of Antidiabetic Efficacy of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. Medicinal Chemistry, 11 (4): 383-390.
  • [23] Aslan A. 2015. The Effects of Different Essential FJ and their Combination on Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Growth. Progress in Nutrition, 17 (1): 36-40.
  • [24] Liu Y., Cao L., Du J., Jia R., Wang J., Xu P., Yin G. 2015. Protective Effects of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Against Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Precision-Cut Liver Slices In vitro and In vivo in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 169: 65-72.
  • [25] Bucheli P., Vidal K., Shen L., Gu Z., Zhang C., Miller L.E., Wang J. 2011. Goji berry Effects on Macular Characteristics and Plasma Antioxidant Levels. Optometry and Vision Science, 88 (2): 257-262.
  • [26] Plavcova Z., Salamunova P., Salon I., Stepanek F., Hanus J., Hosek J. 2019. Curcumin Encapsulation in Yeast Glucan Particles Promotes Its Anti-Inflammatory Potential in vitro. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 568: 118532.
  • [27] Aslan A. 2018. Cell Culture Developing and the Imaging of Total Protein Product Changing with SDS-PAGE in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Progress Nutrition, 20 (1): 128-132.
  • [28] Jilani H., Cilla A., Barberá R., Hamdi M. 2016. Improved Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Capacity of Olive Leaf (Olea europaea L.) Polyphenols Through Biosorption on Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Industrial Crops and Products, 84: 131-138.
  • [29] Kiruthika B., Padma P.R. 2013. Zea mays Leaf Extracts Protect Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Against Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Death. Journal of Acute Medicine, 3 (3): 83-92.
  • [30] Mitrica R., Dumitru I., Ruta L.L., Ofiteru A.M., Farcasanu I.C. 2012. The Dual Action of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG), the Main Constituent of Green Tea, Against the Deleterious Effects of Visible Light and Singlet Oxygen-Generating Conditions As Seen in Yeast Cells. Molecules, 17 (9): 10355-10369.
  • [31] Chong S.Y., Chiang H.Y., Chen T.H., Liang Y.J., Lo Y.C. 2019. Green Tea Extract Promotes DNA Repair in a Yeast Model. Scientific Reports, 9 (1): 3842.
  • [32] Aslan A., Beyaz S., Gok O., Can M.I., Erman F., Erman O. 2020. The Impact of Ellagic Acid on Some Apoptotic Gene Expressions: A New Perspective for the Regulation of Pancreatic Nrf-2/NF-κB and Akt/VEGF Signaling in CCl4-Induced Pancreas Damage in Rats. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 1-8.
  • [33] Kang Y., Xue Y., Du M., Zhu M.J. 2017. Preventive Effects of Goji Berry on Dextran-Sulfate-Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 40: 70-76.
  • [34] Karakaş F.P., Coşkun H., Sağlam K., Bozat B.G. 2016. Lycium barbarum L. (Goji berry) Fruits Improve Anxiety, Depression-Like Behaviors, and Learning Performance: The Moderating Role of Sex. Turkish Journal of Biology, 40 (4): 762-771.
  • [35] Ruíz-Salinas A.K., Vázquez-Roque R.A., Díaz A., Pulido G., Treviño S., Floran B., Flores G. 2020. The Treatment of Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum) Improves The Neuroplasticity of The Prefrontal Cortex And Hippocampus in Aged Rats. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 83: 108416.
Year 2021, Volume: 10 Issue: 3, 784 - 795, 17.09.2021
https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.904623

Abstract

References

  • [1] Karakas F.P. 2020. Efficient Plant Regeneration And Callus Induction From Nodal And Hypocotyl Explants of Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum L.) And Comparison of Phenolic Profiles in Calli Formed Under Different Combinations of Plant Growth Regulators. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 146: 384-391.
  • [2] Hu C.K., Lee Y.J., Colitz C.M., Chang C.J., Lin C.T. 2012. The Protective Effects Of Lycium Barbarum And Chrysanthemum Morifolum on Diabetic Retinopathies in Rats. Veterinary ophthalmology, 15: 65-71.
  • [3] Chao J.C., Chiang S.W., Wang C.C., Tsai Y.H., Wu M.S. 2006. Hot Water-Extracted Lycium Barbarum And Rehmannia Glutinosa Inhibit Proliferation And Induce Apoptosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG, 12 (28): 4478.
  • [4] Fan X.J., Zhang B., Yan H., Feng J.T., Ma Z.Q., Zhang X. 2019. Effect of Lotus Leaf Extract Incorporated Composite Coating on The Postharvest Quality of Fresh Goji (Lycium barbarum L.) Fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 148: 132-140.
  • [5] Rodrigues F.T., Koike A.C.R., Silva P.G., Negrão B.G., Alencar S.M., Mancini Filho J., Villavicencio A.L.C. 2021. Effects of Electron Beam Irradiation on The Bioactive Components of Goji-Berry. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 179: 109144.
  • [6] Donno D., Beccaro G.L., Mellano M.G., Cerutti A.K., Bounous G. 2015. Goji berry fruit (Lycium spp.): Antioxidant Compound Fingerprint and Bioactivity Evaluation. Journal of functional foods, 18: 1070-1085.
  • [7] Şengün P. 2019. Goji Berry (Lycium Barbarum L.) Meyvelerinin Olgunlaşma Evreleri ve Kurutulma Sürecinde Karotenoid Kompozisyonunundaki Değişim. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Denizli.
  • [8] Samar E. 2019. Goji Berry Tüketiminin Boksörlerde Kilo Kaybı Üzerine Etkisi. Doktora Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sakarya.
  • [9] Aslan A., Gök Ö., Erman O. 2017. The Protective Effect of Kiwi Fruit Extract Against to Chromium Effect on Protein Expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Progress in Nutrition, 19 (4): 472-478.
  • [10] Aslan A., Gök Ö., Beyaz S. 2019. Üzüm Çekirdeği Ekstraktının Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Oluşturulan Hidrojen Peroksit Hasarına Karşı Koruyucu Etkisi. Iğdır Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 9 (4): 2216-2224.
  • [11] Laemmli U.K. 1970. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227: 680-685.
  • [12] Aslan A., Gok O., Erman O., Kuloglu T. 2018. Ellagic Acid Impedes Carbontetrachloride-Induced Liver Damage in Rats Through Suppression of NF-kB, Bcl-2 and Regulating Nrf-2 and Caspase Pathway. Biomed Pharmacother, 105: 662-669.
  • [13] Aslan A., Beyaz S., Gök Ö. 2019. Domates Ekstraktının Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Oluşturulan Krom Hasarına Karşı Koruyucu Etkisi. Erzincan Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 12 (2): 1048-1055.
  • [14] Beyaz S., Dalkılıç L.K., Gök Ö., Aslan A. 2020. Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Hidrojen Peroksit ile Oluşturulan Oksidatif Hasara Karşı Karadut (Morus nigra L.) ve Kızılcık (Cornus mas L.)’ın Bazı Moleküler Biyolojik ve Biyokimyasal Parametreler Üzerine Etkisi. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 9 (3): 1134-1144.
  • [15] Erol C. 2020. Akut Romatizmal Ateşli Hastalarda Serum Malondialdehit Asit, Superoksit Dismutaz, Katalaz, Redükte Glutatyon ve Glutatyon Peroksidaz Aktivitelerinin İncelenmesi. Uzmanlık Tezi, Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Tıp Fakültesi, Van.
  • [16] Aslan A., Gok O., Beyaz S., Ağca C.A., Erman O., Zerek A. 2020. Ellagic Acid Prevents Kidney Injury and Oxidative Damage via Regulation of Nrf-2/NF-κB Signaling in Carbon Tetrachloride Induced Rats. Molecular Biology Reports, 47 (10): 7959–7970.
  • [17] Masci A., Carradori S., Casadei M.A., Paolicelli P., Petralito S., Ragno R., Cesa S. 2018. Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides: Extraction, Purification, Structural Characterisation and Evidence About Hypoglycaemic and Hypolipidaemic Effects. A Review. Food Chemistry, 254: 377-389.
  • [18] Tian X., Liang T., Liu Y., Ding G., Zhang F., Ma Z. 2019. Extraction, Structural Characterization, and Biological Functions of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides: A Review. Biomolecules, 9 (9): 389.
  • [19] Chan H.H.L., Lam H.I., Choi K.Y., Li S.Z.C., Lakshmanan Y., Yu W.Y., Chang R.C., Lai J.S., So K.F. 2019. Delay of Cone Degeneration in Retinitis Pigmentosa Using a 12-Month Treatment with Lycium barbarum Supplement. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 236: 336-344.
  • [20] Amagase H., Nance D.M. 2011. Lycium barbarum Increases Caloric Expenditure and Decreases Waist Circumference in Healthy Overweight Men and Women: Pilot Study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 30 (5): 304-309.
  • [21] Chiancone F., Carrino M., Meccariello C., Pucci L., Fedelini M., Fedelini P. 2019. The use of a Combination of Vaccinium Macracarpon, Lycium barbarum L. and Probiotics (Bifiprost®) for the Prevention of Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis: A Double-Blind Randomized Study. Urologia Internationalis, 103 (4): 423-426.
  • [22] Cai H., Liu F., Zuo P., Huang G., Song Z., Wang T., Lu H., Guo F., Han C., Sun G. 2015. Practical Application of Antidiabetic Efficacy of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharide in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. Medicinal Chemistry, 11 (4): 383-390.
  • [23] Aslan A. 2015. The Effects of Different Essential FJ and their Combination on Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Growth. Progress in Nutrition, 17 (1): 36-40.
  • [24] Liu Y., Cao L., Du J., Jia R., Wang J., Xu P., Yin G. 2015. Protective Effects of Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Against Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Precision-Cut Liver Slices In vitro and In vivo in Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 169: 65-72.
  • [25] Bucheli P., Vidal K., Shen L., Gu Z., Zhang C., Miller L.E., Wang J. 2011. Goji berry Effects on Macular Characteristics and Plasma Antioxidant Levels. Optometry and Vision Science, 88 (2): 257-262.
  • [26] Plavcova Z., Salamunova P., Salon I., Stepanek F., Hanus J., Hosek J. 2019. Curcumin Encapsulation in Yeast Glucan Particles Promotes Its Anti-Inflammatory Potential in vitro. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 568: 118532.
  • [27] Aslan A. 2018. Cell Culture Developing and the Imaging of Total Protein Product Changing with SDS-PAGE in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Progress Nutrition, 20 (1): 128-132.
  • [28] Jilani H., Cilla A., Barberá R., Hamdi M. 2016. Improved Bioaccessibility and Antioxidant Capacity of Olive Leaf (Olea europaea L.) Polyphenols Through Biosorption on Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Industrial Crops and Products, 84: 131-138.
  • [29] Kiruthika B., Padma P.R. 2013. Zea mays Leaf Extracts Protect Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Against Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Death. Journal of Acute Medicine, 3 (3): 83-92.
  • [30] Mitrica R., Dumitru I., Ruta L.L., Ofiteru A.M., Farcasanu I.C. 2012. The Dual Action of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG), the Main Constituent of Green Tea, Against the Deleterious Effects of Visible Light and Singlet Oxygen-Generating Conditions As Seen in Yeast Cells. Molecules, 17 (9): 10355-10369.
  • [31] Chong S.Y., Chiang H.Y., Chen T.H., Liang Y.J., Lo Y.C. 2019. Green Tea Extract Promotes DNA Repair in a Yeast Model. Scientific Reports, 9 (1): 3842.
  • [32] Aslan A., Beyaz S., Gok O., Can M.I., Erman F., Erman O. 2020. The Impact of Ellagic Acid on Some Apoptotic Gene Expressions: A New Perspective for the Regulation of Pancreatic Nrf-2/NF-κB and Akt/VEGF Signaling in CCl4-Induced Pancreas Damage in Rats. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 1-8.
  • [33] Kang Y., Xue Y., Du M., Zhu M.J. 2017. Preventive Effects of Goji Berry on Dextran-Sulfate-Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 40: 70-76.
  • [34] Karakaş F.P., Coşkun H., Sağlam K., Bozat B.G. 2016. Lycium barbarum L. (Goji berry) Fruits Improve Anxiety, Depression-Like Behaviors, and Learning Performance: The Moderating Role of Sex. Turkish Journal of Biology, 40 (4): 762-771.
  • [35] Ruíz-Salinas A.K., Vázquez-Roque R.A., Díaz A., Pulido G., Treviño S., Floran B., Flores G. 2020. The Treatment of Goji Berry (Lycium barbarum) Improves The Neuroplasticity of The Prefrontal Cortex And Hippocampus in Aged Rats. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 83: 108416.
There are 35 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section Araştırma Makalesi
Authors

Abdullah Aslan 0000-0002-6243-4221

Publication Date September 17, 2021
Submission Date March 28, 2021
Acceptance Date May 31, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 10 Issue: 3

Cite

IEEE A. Aslan, “Saccharomyces cerevisiae’de Krom (K2Cr2O7) ile Oluşturulan Oksidatif Hasara Goji Berry’nin Koruyucu Etkileri”, Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 784–795, 2021, doi: 10.17798/bitlisfen.904623.

Bitlis Eren University
Journal of Science Editor
Bitlis Eren University Graduate Institute
Bes Minare Mah. Ahmet Eren Bulvari, Merkez Kampus, 13000 BITLIS