buje Bogazici University Journal of Education 2822-5600 2822-5597 Boğazici University Sense and nonsense of metacognition as ‘second order skills’ in relation to specific learning disorders Desoete Annemie 01 01 2015 32 1 16 33 06 07 2017 Copyright © 1976, Bogazici University Journal of Education 1976 Bogazici University Journal of Education

After an introduction on ‘second order skills ‘(metacognition, Executive Functions or EF, self-regulation andEffortfull Control or EC) and on specific learning disorders (dyslexia/dyscalculia), we focus on the ‘nexus’between both constructs in five studies. In study 1 we compared prediction and evaluation skills in childrenwith and without learning disabilities. In addition we revealed that children with procedural dyscalculia hadpoor prediction and evaluation skills (study 2) and that persons with dyslexia and dyscalculia had belowaverage working memory and planning skills (cold EF – study 3) with children with dyslexia also havingproblems with inhibition (hot EF – study 4). When analyzing metacognition in adolescents study 5demonstrated that poor spellers are also were poor in detecting spelling mistakes. Moreover study 6demonstrated that high functioning adolescents with dyslexia show a lot of similarities on hot and cold EFwith peers without dyslexia. Finally study 7 demonstrated that metacognition can be trained in the case of a‘production deficiency’ with an informed, prolonged and embedded training and that metacognition can beconsidered from a Universal Design for Leaning (UDL) perspective as ‘tool’ taking into account the differentProcess Communication Model (PCM) personality types (Kahler, 2008; Pauley & Pauley, 2012).

 Metacognition Executive functions Efforfull control Learning Disabilities Ardila, A. (2013). Development of metacognitive and emotional executive functions in children. Applied neuropsychology: Child, 2, 82-87 doi:10.1080/21622965.2013.748388 Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Baddeley, A. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section a-Human Experimental Psychology, 49, 5- 28. doi: 10.1080/027249896392784 Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423. Baddeley, A. D. (2002). Is working memory still working? European Psychologist, 7, 85-97. Baddeley, A., Allen, R. J., & Hitch, G. J. (2010). Investigating the episodic buffer. Psychologica Belgica, 50, 223-243. doi: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/ Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., Colligan, R. C., Weaver, A. L., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2005). Learning disorder: Incidence in a population-based birth cohort, 1976-82, Rochester, Minn. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 5, 281-289. doi: 10.1367/A04-209R.1 Barkley, R.A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulations: an evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychological Review, 11(1), 1-29. Bergmann, J., & Wimmer, H. (2008). A dual-route perspective on poor reading in a regular orthography: Evidence from phonological and orthographic lexical decisions. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 25, 653-676. doi: 10.1080/02643290802221404 Boekaerts, M., & Corno, L. (2005). Self-regulation in the classroom: A perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54(2), 199-231. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00205.x Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of selfregulation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 453-481). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, A.L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation and other more mysterious mechanisms. In: F.E. Weinert & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.). Metacognition, motivation and understanding (pp 65-116). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Laurence Erlbaum Associates. Busato, V. V., Prins, F. J., Elshout, J. J., & Hamaker, C. (1998). Learning styles: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study in higher education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 427-441. Callens, M., Tops, W., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Cognitive Profile of Students Who Enter Higher Education with an Indication of Dyslexia. Plos One, 7. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038081 De Clercq, A., Desoete, A., & Roeyers (2000). EPA2000: A multilingual, programmable computer assessment of off-line metacognition in children with mathematical-learning disabilities. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 32, 304-311. Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2002). Off-line metacognition. A domain-specific retardation in young children with learning disabilities? Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 123-139. DOI:10.2307/1511279 Dermitzaki, I., & Efklides, A. (2003). Goal orientations and their effect on self-concept and metacognition in adolescence. Psychology. The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 10, 214-227. Desoete, A. (2007a). Evaluating and improving the mathematics teaching-learning process through metacognition. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 5(3), 705-730. Desoete, A. (2007b). Students with mathematical disabilities in Belgium: From definition, classification and assessment to STICORDI device. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioural disabilities: Vol. 20. International perspectives (pp. 181-222). Oxford, England: Elsevier. Desoete, A. (2008). Multi-method assessment of metacognitive skills in elementary school children: How you test is what you get. Metacognition Learning, 3, 189-206. Desoete, A. (2009a). Mathematics and metacognition in adolescents and adults with learning disabilities. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 2 (1), 82-100. Desoete, A. (2009b). Metacognitive prediction and evaluation skills and mathematical learning in third-grade students. Educational Research and Evaluation, 15, 435-446. Desoete, A. (2009c). The enigma of mathematical learning disabilities: Metacognition or STICORDI, that’s the question. In D. J. Hacker, J., Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 206-218). USA: Routledge. Desoete, A. (2014). Cognitive predictors of mathematical abilities and disabilities. In R.. Cohen Kadosh & A. Dowker (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Mathematical Cognition. Oxford : Medicine UK. (pp.899-914). Desoete, A. (2015). Predictive indicators for mathematical learning disabilities/dyscalculia in kindergarten children (pp 90-100). In S. Chinn (Ed)., The International Handbook for Mathematical difficulties and Dyscalculia. London & New York: Routledge. Desoete, A., & De Weerdt, F. (2013). Can executive functions help to understand children with mathematical learning disorders and to improve instruction? Learning Disabilities: A contemporary Journal, 11 (2), 27-39. Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2002). Off-line metacognition. A domain-specific retardation in young children with learning disabilities? Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 123-139. Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2006). Metacognitive macroevaluations in mathematical problem solving. Learning and Instruction, 16, 12-25. Desoete, A., & Veenman, M. (Eds.). (2006). Metacognition in mathematics education. New York: NOVA. De Weerdt, F., Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2013a). Working Memory in Children with Reading and/or Mathematical Disabilities. Journal of learning disabilities, 46: 461-472.DOI: 10.1177/0022219412455238 De Weerdt, F., Desoete, A., & Roeyers, H. (2013b). Behavioral Inhibition in Children with Learning Disabilities, Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 1998- 2007 DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.02.020 Dignath-van Ewijk, C. (2011). Assessing students' acquisition of self-regulated learning skills using meta-analysis. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 376-392). Dignath, C., Buettner, G., & Langfeldt, H.-P. (2008). How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively?: A meta-analysis on self-regulation training programmes. Educational Research Review, 3(2), 101-129. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2008.02.003 Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and co-regulation. European Psychologist, 13, 277- 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.13.4.277 Flavell, J.H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem-solving. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), The Nature of Intelligence (pp. 231-236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Morris, R. D., & Lyon, G. R. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of learning disabilities in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 506-522. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_7 Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2004). The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology-General, 133, 101-135. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.101 Geary, D. C. (2011a). Cognitive predictors of achievement growth in mathematics: A 5- year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1539-1552. Geary, D. C. (2011b). Consequences, characteristics, and causes of mathematical learning disabilities and persistent low achievement in mathematics. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 32, 250-263. Georghiades, P. (2007). Beyond conceptual change learning in science education: focussing on transfer, durability, and metacognition. Educational Research, 42, 119-139. Hanna, E. I. (2005). Inclusive design for maximum accessibility: A practical approach to universal design (PEM Research Report No. 05-04). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Educational Measurement. Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Brindle, M., & Sandmel, K. (2009). Metacognition and children’s writing. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition in education (pp. 131-153). New York: Routledge. Hartman, H. & Sternberg, J. (1993). A broad BACIES for improving thinking. Instructional Science, 21, 401-425. Hitchcock, C. G., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2002). Providing new access to the general curriculum: Universal design for learning. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35, 8-17. Kahler, T. (2004). The Process Therapy Model. Little Rock, AR: Taibi Kahler Associates. Kahler, T. (2008). The process therapy model: the six personality types with adaptations. Little Rock: Taibi Kahler Associates, Inc. Kruger, J. (2002). Unskilled and unaware – but why? A reply to Krueger and Mueller. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 82, 189-192. Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1121-1134. Koriat, A. (2007). Metacognition and consciousness. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness (pp. 289- 325). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lucangeli, D., & Cornoldi, C. (1997). Mathematics and metacognition: What is the nature of the relationship? Mathematical Cognition, 3, 121-139. Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 218-253. doi: 10.1007/s11881-003-0011-7 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100. doi: 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Moore, A.M., Rudy, N.O., & Schcrat, M.H. (2015). Affect, motivation, working memeory, and mathematics. (pp. 918-936). In R.. Cohen Kadosh & A. Dowker (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Mathematical Cognition. Oxford : Medicine UK. (pp.917-936). Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 220-246. doi: 10.1037//0033- 2909.126.2.220 OECD (2015). The ABC of Gender Aduiality in Education:Aptitude, behaviour, confidence. PISA, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264229945-en Pauley, J.A., & Pauley, J.F. (2012). Establishing a culture of patient safety. Improving communication, building relationships, and using quality tools. ASQ quality press. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Pennington, B. F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101, 385-413. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008 Pennington, B. F., Lemmon, L. S., Rosenberg, J., MacDonald, B., Boada, R., Friend, A., Leopold, D. R., Samuelsson, S., Byrne, B., Willcutt, E. G., & Olson, R. K. (2012). Individual Prediction of Dyslexia by Single Versus Multiple Deficit Models. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 212-224. doi: 10.1037/a0025823 Perfect, T. & Schwartz, B. (2002). Applied Metacognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pintrich, P.R. (2002). The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing. Theory Into Practice, 41, 219-225. Purvis, K. L., & Tannock, R. (2000). Phonological processing, not inhibitory control, differentiates ADHD and reading disability. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 485-494. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200004000-00018 Rothbart, M.K. (1989). Temperament and development. In G. Kohnstamm, J. Bates, & M.K. Rothbartt (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 187-248). Chichester, UK: Wiley. Rothbart, M.K. (2004). Temperament and the pursuit of an integrated developmental psychology. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50 (4), 492-505 Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5th ed., pp.105-176). New York: Wiley. Rubinsten, O., & Henik, A. (2009). Developmental Dyscalculia: heterogeneity might not mean different mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 92-99. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.002 Schraw, G. (1997). The effect of generalised metacognitive knowledge on test performance and confidence judgment. Journal of Experimental Education, 65, 135-147. Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26, 113-125. Schraw, G. & Dennisson, S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19, 460-475. Schraw, G. & Nietfeld, J. (1998). A further test of the general monitoring skill hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 236-248. Schumacher, J., Hoffmann, P., Schmal, C., Schulte-Korne, G., & Nothen, M. M. (2007). Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape. Journal of Medical Genetics, 44, 289-297. doi: 10.1136/jmg.2006.046516 Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2005). Developmental dyscalculia: a prospective six-year follow-up. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 47, 121-125. doi: 10.1017/s0012162205000216 Sinkavich, F. J. (1995). Performance and metamemory: Do students know what they don’t know? Instructional Psychology, 22, 77-87. Tops, W., Callens, M. Desoete, A., Stevens, M., & Brysbaert, M. (2014). Metacognition for Spelling in Higher Education Students with Dyslexia: Is There Evidence for the Dual Burden Hypothesis?. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0106550 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.01 06550 Tosto, M.G., Haworth, C.M.A., & Kovas, Y. (2015). Behavioural genomcs of mathematics. In R.. Cohen Kadosh & A. Dowker (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Mathematical Cognition. Oxford : Medicine UK. (pp.977- 1001). Vanderswalmen, R., Vrijders, J., & Desoete, A. (2010). Metacognition and spelling performance in college students. In Efklides, A., & Misailidi, P. (Eds.). Trends and prospects in metacognition research (pp. 367-394). New York: Springer. Weinstein, C.E., Shculte, A.C., & Palmer, D.R. (2002) LASSI http://www.hhpublishing.com/_assessments/LASSI Zimmerman, B.J., & Schunk, D.H. (2011). Self-regulated learning and performance: An introduction and an overview. In: B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds.). Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 1-12). New York: Routledge. Veenman, M. V. J. (2005). The assesment of metacognitive skills: what can be learned from multi-method designs? In B. Moschner & C. Artelt (Eds.), Lernstrategien und Metakognition: Implikationen für Forschung and Praxis. Berlin: Waxmann. Veenman, M.V.J. (2013, August). Metacognition and Learning: Conceptual and Methodological Considerations Revisited. What have we Learned During the Las t Decade? Keynote at the15th biennial Conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction EARLI, Munchen: Germany. Veenman, M. V. J., & Elshout, J. J. (1999). Changes in the relation between cognitive and metacognitive skills during the acquisition of expertise. European Journal of Psychology of Education, XIV, 509-523. Veenman, M. V. J., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H. A. M., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning. Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition Learning, 1, 3-14. Waber, D. (2014). Paper in the symposium of L. Meltzer, R. Tannock and D. Waber. Understanding executive function and metacognition : implications for diagnosis and treatment of LD and ADHD at the 38th conference of the International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities (IARLD) Vilnius Litouwen July 4h Winne, P.H. (2011). A cognitive and metacognitive analysis of self-regulated learning. In: B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds). Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 15-32). New York: Routledge. Ziegler, C. J., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholiguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 3-29. Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Motivational sources and outcomes of self-regulated learning and performance. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. New York: Routledge.