cujhss Cankaya University Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3062-0112 Cankaya University 10.47777/cankujhss.1338278 Literary Studies (Other) Edebi Çalışmalar (Diğer) Emotional Language Processing in Bilingualism: Subjective Affect and Prosodic Markers in Simultaneous Interpreting İki Dillilikte Duygusal Dil İşlemleme: Andaş Çeviride Öznel Duygulanım ve Bürünsel Belirteçler https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0844-3562 Kumcu Alper HACETTEPE ÜNİVERSİTESİ 12 29 2023 17 2 194 211 08 05 2023 10 17 2023 Copyright © 2024, Cankaya University Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 2024 Cankaya University Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

Emotion, as part of the overall sensorimotor, introspective, and affective system, is an essential part of language comprehension within the framework of embodied semantics. As emotional state influences semantic and syntactic processing, emotional language processing has been shown to modulate mood as well. The reciprocal relationship between language and emotion has also been informative in bilingualism. Here we take a relatively underresearched type of bilingual processing, simultaneous interpreting, as a case of extreme bilingualism and investigate the effect of emotional language rendering in the L1 on subjective affect and prosodic markers of L2 output. 18 trainee interpreters were asked to simultaneously interpret three speeches in Turkish that varied in emotionality, valence (negative, neutral, and positive), and difficulty in English. Responses to emotional language processing were analysed based on participants’ self-reported positive and negative affect using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and three prosodic parameters (intensity, pitch, and fluency). Results showed that interpreting emotionally negative speech increased negative affect, whereas interpreting emotionally positive speech did not modify positive affect. Intensity generally reflected cognitive load. Pitch and fluency, in particular, were more sensitive to changes in the valence of the source speech.

Duygu; genel duyumotor, içgörü ve duygulanım sisteminin bir parçası olarak, bedenlenmiş anlambilim çerçevesinde dil anlamanın temel bir parçasıdır. Çalışmalar duygudurumun anlamsal ve sözdizimsel işlemlemeyi etkilediği gibi, duygusal dil işlemlemenin de duygudurumu etkilediğini göstermiştir. Dil ve duygu arasındaki karşılıklı ilişki, iki dillilik açısından da açıklayıcıdır. Bu çalışma, görece az çalışılan bir iki dillilik türü olan andaş çeviriyi bir tür “uç iki dillilik” olarak ele almakta ve ana dilde (L1) duygusal dil işlemlemenin öznel duygulanım ve ikinci dilde (L2) bürünsel belirteçler üzerindeki etkisini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışmada 18 katılımcıdan duygusallık, duygusal değer (olumsuz, nötr ve olumlu) ve zorluk açısından farklılık gösteren üç Türkçe konuşmayı eş zamanlı olarak İngilizceye çevirmeleri istenmiştir. Duygusal dil işlemleme, katılımcıların Olumlu ve Olumsuz Duygulanım Ölçeği (PANAS) ile bildirdikleri olumlu ve olumsuz duygulanım puanları ile üç bürünsel parametre (yoğunluk, tizlik ve akıcılık) temelinde analiz edilmiştir. Sonuçlar, duygusal açıdan olumsuz konuşmanın çevirisinden sonra olumsuz duygulanımın arttığını ancak duygusal açıdan olumlu konuşmanın olumlu duygulanımı etkilemediğini göstermiştir. Seste yoğunluk genel olarak bilişsel yükü yansıtırken tizlik ve özellikle akıcılık kaynak konuşmanın duygusal değerindeki değişikliklere karşı daha hassastır.

 emotional language emotional load cognitive load valence bilingualism simultaneous interpreting prosodic parameters duygusal dil duygusal yük bilişsel yük duygusal değer iki dillilik andaş çeviri bürünsel parametreler Albuquerque, L., Valente, A. R. S., Teixeira, A., Figueiredo, D., Sa-Couto, P., & Oliveira, C. (2021). Association between acoustic speech features and non-severe levels of anxiety and depression symptoms across lifespan. PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0248842. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248842 Alku, P., & Vilkman, E. (1996). A comparison of glottal voice source quantification parameters in breathy, normal and pressed phonation of female and male speakers. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 48(5), 240-254. https://doi.org/10.1159/000266415 Ateşman, E. (1997). Türkçe’de okunabilirliğin ölçülmesi. Dil Dergisi, 58, 71-74. Bates, D. M., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01 Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2022). Praat: Doing phonetics by computer (6.3.03) [Computer software]. http://www.praat.org/ Bohn-Gettler, C. M. (2019). Getting a grip: The PET framework for studying how reader emotions influence comprehension. Discourse Processes, 56(5-6), 386-401. https://doi.org/10.1080/0163853X.2019.1611174 Carstensen, L. L., & DeLiema, M. (2018). The positivity effect: A negativity bias in youth fades with age. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 19, 7-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.07.009 Conrad, M., Recio, G., & Jacobs, A. M. (2011). The time course of emotion effects in first and second language processing: A cross cultural ERP study with German-Spanish bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00351 Dong, Y., & Li, P. (2020). Interpreting: A window into bilingual processing. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(4), 703-705. doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000346 Filippa, M., Lima, D., Grandjean, A., Labbé, C., Coll, S. Y., Gentaz, E., & Grandjean, D. M. (2022). Emotional prosody recognition enhances and progressively complexifies from childhood to adolescence. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 17144. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21554-0 Griffin, G. R., & Williams, C. E. (1987). The effects of different levels of task complexity on three vocal measures. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 58(12), 1165-1170. Gumul, E. (2021). Reporting stress in simultaneous interpreting. The analysis of trainee interpreters’ retrospective reports and outputs. Onomázein Revista de Lingüística Filología y Traducción, 8. https://doi.org/10.7764/onomazein.ne8.04 Habermas, T. (2018). Emotion and narrative: Perspectives in autobiographical storytelling (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139424615 Harris, C. L. (2004). Bilingual speakers in the lab: Psychophysiological measures of emotional reactivity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25(2-3), 223-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434630408666530 Harris, C. L., Ayçiçegi, A., & Gleason, J. B. (2003). Taboo words and reprimands elicit greater autonomic reactivity in a first language than in a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(04), 561-579. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716403000286 Havas, D. A., Glenberg, A. M., & Rinck, M. (2007). Emotion simulation during language comprehension. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(3), 436-441. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194085 Hervais-Adelman, A., & Babcock, L. (2020). The neurobiology of simultaneous interpreting: Where extreme language control and cognitive control intersect. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(4), 740-751. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000324 Heyrani, R., Nejati, V., Abbasi, S., & Hartwigsen, G. (2022). Laterality in emotional language processing in first and second language. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 736359. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736359 Holmes, E. A., & Mathews, A. (2010). Mental imagery in emotion and emotional disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(3), 349-362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.001 Hothorn, T., Bretz, F., & Westfall, P. (2008). Simultaneous inference in general parametric models. Biometrical Journal, 50(3), 346-363. https://doi.org/10.1002/bimj.200810425 Huttunen, K., Keränen, H., Väyrynen, E., Pääkkönen, R., & Leino, T. (2011). Effect of cognitive load on speech prosody in aviation: Evidence from military simulator flights. Applied Ergonomics, 42(2), 348-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2010.08.005 Johnson, E. J., & Tversky, A. (1983). Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(1), 20-31. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.45.1.20 Juslin, P. N., & Laukka, P. (2003). Communication of emotions in vocal expression and music performance: Different channels, same code? Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 770-814. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.770 Kensinger, E. A. (2009). Remembering the details: Effects of emotion. Emotion Review, 1(2), 99-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073908100432 Klonowicz, T. (1990). A psychophysiological assessment of simultaneous interpreting: The interaction of individual differences and mental workload. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 21, 37-48. Korpal, P. (2016). Interpreting as a stressful activity: Physiological measures of stress in simultaneous interpreting. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 52(2). https://doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2016-0011 Korpal, P. (2021). Stress and emotion in conference interpreting. In M. Albl-Mikasa, & E. Tiselius (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of conference interpreting (pp. 401-413). Routledge. Korpal, P., & Jasielska, A. (2019). Investigating interpreters’ empathy: Are emotions in simultaneous interpreting contagious? Target, 31(1), 2-24. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.17123.kor Kumcu, A. (2020). Konferans salonunda dağıtık biliş: Andaş çeviri sürecine yeni bir bakış. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 37(1), 170-185. https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.621553 Kumcu, A., & Öztürk, A. (2023). Visual mental imagery and verbal working memory: Evidence from consecutive interpreting. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2023.2216917 Kurz, I. (2002). Physiological stress responses during media and conference interpreting. In G. Garzone & M. Viezzi (Eds.), Interpreting in the 21st century: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 195–202). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2017). lmerTest Package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82(13), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13 Lennes, M. (2002). Mark_pauses [Computer software]. http://phonetics.linguistics.ucla.edu/facilities/acoustic/mark_pauses.txt Lindquist, K. A., MacCormack, J. K., & Shablack, H. (2015). The role of language in emotion: Predictions from psychological constructionism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00444 Liu, M. (2011). Methodology in interpreting studies: A methodological review of evidence-based research. In B. Nicodemus & L. Swabey (Eds.), Advances in interpreting research: Inquiry in action (pp. 85-120). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.99.08liu Mackintosh, J. (2003). The AIIC workload study. FORUM. Revue Internationale d’interprétation et de Traduction / International Journal of Interpretation and Translation, 1(2), 189-214. https://doi.org/10.1075/forum.1.2.09mac Martínez-Sánchez, F., Muela-Martínez, J. A., Cortés-Soto, P., García Meilán, J. J., Vera Ferrándiz, J. A., Egea Caparrós, A., & Pujante Valverde, I. M. (2015). Can the acoustic analysis of expressive prosody discriminate schizophrenia? The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 18, E86. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2015.85 Mellinger, C. D., & Hanson, T. A. (2019). Meta-analyses of simultaneous interpreting and working memory. Interpreting. International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting, 21(2), 165-195. https://doi.org/10.1075/intp.00026.mel Moser-Mercer, B., Künzli, A., & Korac, M. (1998). Prolonged turns in interpreting: Effects on quality, physiological and psychological stress (Pilot study). Interpreting. International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting, 3(1), 47-64. https://doi.org/10.1075/intp.3.1.03mos Mundt, J. C., Snyder, P. J., Cannizzaro, M. S., Chappie, K., & Geralts, D. S. (2007). Voice acoustic measures of depression severity and treatment response collected via interactive voice response (IVR) technology. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(1), 50-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.04.001 Nour, S., Struys, E., & Stengers, H. (2020). Adaptive control in interpreters: Assessing the impact of training and experience on working memory. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(4), 772-779. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000127 Pavlenko, A. (2012). Affective processing in bilingual speakers: Disembodied cognition? International Journal of Psychology, 47(6), 405-428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.743665 Pisanski, K., & Sorokowski, P. (2021). Human stress detection: Cortisol levels in stressed speakers predict voice-based judgments of stress. Perception, 50(1), 80-87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006620978378 R Core Team. (2023). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/. Rojo López, A. M., Foulquié-Rubio, A.-I., Espín López, L., & Martínez Sánchez, F. (2021). Analysis of speech rhythm and heart rate as indicators of stress on student interpreters. Perspectives, 29(4), 591–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2021.1900305 Rothkrantz, L. J. M., Wiggers, P., Wees, J.-W. A., & Vark, R. J. (2004). Voice stress analysis. In P. Sojka, I. Kopeček, & K. Pala (Eds.), Text, speech and dialogue (pp. 449-456). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-30120-2_57 Scherer, K. R. (1986a). Vocal affect expression: A review and a model for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 99(2), 143-165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.99.2.143 Scherer, K. R. (1986b). Voice, stress, and emotion. In M. H. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.), Dynamics of stress (pp. 157-179). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-5122-1_9 Sondhi, S., Khan, M., Vijay, R., Salhan, A. K., & Chouhan, S. (2015). Acoustic analysis of speech under stress. International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications, 11(5), 417. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBRA.2015.071942 Splevins, K. A., Cohen, K., Joseph, S., Murray, C., & Bowley, J. (2010). Vicarious posttraumatic growth among interpreters. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1705-1716. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310377457 Tamuri, K. (2014). Fundamental frequency in Estonian emotional read-out speech. Eesti Ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri. Journal of Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics, 6(1), 9-21. https://doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2015.6.1.01 Tisljár-Szabó, E., & Pléh, C. (2014). Ascribing emotions depending on pause length in native and foreign language speech. Speech Communication, 56, 35-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2013.07.009 Tolkmitt, F. J., & Scherer, K. R. (1986). Effect of experimentally induced stress on vocal parameters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 12(3), 302-313. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.12.3.302 Vaish, A., Grossmann, T., & Woodward, A. (2008). Not all emotions are created equal: The negativity bias in social-emotional development. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 383-403. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.383 Van Bezooijen, R. (1995). Sociocultural aspects of pitch differences between Japanese and Dutch women. Language and Speech, 38(3), 253-265. https://doi.org/10.1177/002383099503800303 van den Broek, E. L. (2004). Emotional Prosody Measurement (EPM): A voice-based evaluation method for psychological therapy effectiveness. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 103, 118-125. Van Der Linden, L., Van De Putte, E., Woumans, E., Duyck, W., & Szmalec, A. (2018). Does extreme language control training improve cognitive control? A comparison of professional interpreters, L2 teachers and monolinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1998. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01998 Van Puyvelde, M., Neyt, X., McGlone, F., & Pattyn, N. (2018). Voice stress analysis: A new framework for voice and effort in human performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1994. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01994 Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 Weeks, J. W., Lee, C.-Y., Reilly, A. R., Howell, A. N., France, C., Kowalsky, J. M., & Bush, A. (2012). “The Sound of Fear”: Assessing vocal fundamental frequency as a physiological indicator of social anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(8), 811-822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.07.005 Winter, B. (2013). Linear models and linear mixed effects models in R with linguistic applications. http://arxiv.org/abs/1308.5499