A Review of Sudan’s Major Food-Borne Viral and Fungal Diseases
Year 2024,
, 553 - 560, 28.06.2024
Siddiqa Hamza
,
Azza Mutwakil
,
Abdalbasıt Marıod
,
Rihab Mohammed
Abstract
Objective: This review article was conducted to highlight both viral and fungal foodborne situations in Sudan and their health impacts aiming to help health policymakers in introducing strict intervention measures.
Method: The review uses up-to-date data via manual screening of the titles and abstracts of retrieved articles using string foodborne diseases in Sudan and foodborne illnesses as keywords to obtain publications from the electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar from the year 2000-2020 using the publish or perish tool, the databases were reviewed from January to April 2022.
Results: Foodborne viruses and Mycotoxins produced by certain fungi; are considered among the top priorities and have become of great concern to the food industry over the last few years because their contamination can occur at any point in the nutritional supply chain besides their serious effects on human health both long and short term.
Conclusion: The review on major food borne viral and fungal diseases in Sudan is an important issue to guard against contamination with such micro-organisms and prevent their illnesses.
References
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- Derber CF, Gadkowski LB. Foodborne Infectious Diseases—Historical Perspective and Overview. Food Microbiology: In Human Health and Disease. 2016; Jan 5:1.
- Seeger, Matthew W, and Julie MN. Modeling the recall and warning process in the foodborne contamination event: Perspectives from disaster warnings and crisis communication. Inter J Mass Emerg & Dis. 2010;28, (1): 115-144. DOI: 10.1177/028072701002800105
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- Harrison L and DiCaprio E. Hepatitis E Virus: An Emerging Foodborne Pathogen, Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2018; 08, (5): 2018 DOI:10.3389/fsufs.2018.00014
- Magzoub MA, Bilal NE, Bilal JA, Alzohairy MA, Elamin B K, Gasim G I. Detection, and sequencing of rotavirus among Sudanese children. The Pan Afric. Med. J. 2017; 28, 87. DOI:11604/pamj.2017.28.87.11008
- Elawad M, and Masaad T. Epidemiology of Rotavirus Infection in Children Less than Five Years in Omdurman Paediatric Hospital, Khartoum, Sudan. Inter J Biomed Res. 2015; 6, (3):219-222. DOI:10.7439/ijbr.v6i3.1804
- Abdalla AE, Nagi, AM, Elawa, EH. Frequency of Rotavirus Infection among Children with Diarrhea in Omdurman Pediatric Hospital, Sudan. Sudan J. Med. Sci. 2013; 8(4):163–168.
- Dennehy PH. Transmission of rotavirus and other enteric pathogens in the home. Pedia. Infect. Dis. J. 2000; Oct;19, (10Suppl):S103-5. DOI:10.1097/00006454-200010001-00003. PMID: 11052397.
- Elhussein AM, Mustafa MO, Enan K. Molecular Detection of Rotavirus (A and B) and Astrovirus in Children Less than 5 Years with Gastroenteritis in Khartoum and Aljazeera States, Sudan, (January). Int. J. S. Res. Sci. Engg. Technol. September-October-2018; 4(10): 07-13.
- Rzeżutka A and Cook, N. Survival of human enteric viruses in the environment and food’, FEMS Microb, Rev. 2004; 28(4): 441–453. DOI: 10.1016/j.femsre.2004.02.001.
- Carter MJ. Enterically infecting viruses: Pathogenicity, transmission, and significance for food and waterborne infection. J App Microb. 2005; 98(6):1354–1380. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02635. x.
- Riewpaiboon A, Shin S, Le TP, Vu DT, Nguyen TH, Alexander N, Dang DA. Rotavirus Economic Study Group. Cost of rotavirus diarrhea for programmatic evaluation of vaccination in Vietnam. BMC Pub Health. 2016; Aug 11,16(1):777. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3458-2
- Cook SM, Glass RI, Lebaron CW, Ho, Mei-shang. Global seasonality of rotavirus infection. Bull. WHO. 1990; 68(2) 171-177. ISSN: 00439686.
- Iturriza-Gomara M. and O’Brien SJ. Foodborne viral infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2016 Oct; 29(5):495-501. DOI: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000299
- Barclay L, Park GW, Vega E, Hall A, Parashar U, Vinjé J, Lopman B. Infection control for norovirus. Clin Microb Infec. 2014; 20(8): 731–740. DOI:10.1111/1469-0691.12674.
- Koopmans M. and Duizer E. Foodborne viruses: An emerging problem. Inter. J. Food Microb. 2004; Jan 1, 90(1):23-41. DOI:10.1016/s0168-1605(03)00169-7.
- Tatay, EM, El Hussein, AM, Mustafa, MO, Elkhidir, IM, Enan, KA. Molecular Detection of Norovirus 1, 2 in Children Less than 5 Years with Gastroenteritis in Al Jazeera State, Sudan. Inter J Sci Res Sci Eng Tech. 2018; 4, (9): 458–462.
- Ada, MA, Wang J, Enan, KA, Shen, H, Wang, H, El Hussein, AR, Musa, A, Khidi, IM, Ma, X. Molecular survey of viral and bacterial causes of childhood diarrhea in Khartoum State, Sudan. Front Microb. 2018; 9:112. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00112.
- Franco E, Meleleo C, Serino L, Sorbara D, Zaratti L. Hepatitis A: Epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World J Hep. 2012;4(3):68-73. DOI:10.4254/wjh. v4.i3.68.
- https://www.who.int
- Nor MAM, and Ali MA. Prevalence Rate of Hepatitis A Virus among Asymptomatic Food Handlers in Khartoum State (Sudan). Afri J Med. 2019; 4 (7):1-5.
- de Paula VS. Laboratory Diagnosis of Hepatitis A. Fut Viro. 2012;7(5):461-472.
- Gue PJ, Guthmann J, Nicand E. Outbreak of Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Darfur, Sudan: Effectiveness of Real-Time Reverse Transcription-PCR Analysis of Dried Blood Spots. J Clin Microbiol. 2009; Jun;47(6):1931-3. DOI:10.1128/JCM.02245-08.
- Nicand E, Armstrong GL, Enouf V, Guthmann JP, Guerin J-P, Caron M, Andraghetti, R. Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis E virus in Darfur, Sudan, and neighboring. Chad J Med Viro. 2005; 77: 519–521. DOI:10.1002/jmv.20487.
- Boccia D, Guthmann JP, Klovstad H, Hamid N, Tatay M, Ciglenecki I, Nizou JY, Nicand E, Guerin PJ. High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan. Clin Infect Dis. 2006; Jun 15;42(12):1679-84. DOI: 10.1086/504322.
- Eltayeb R, Gasim GI, Elhassan EM, Rayis, D, Abdullahi H. Maternal and newborn seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus at Medani Hospital, Sudan. F1000Res 2015; 4:823. DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.7041.
- Azman AS, Bouhenia M, Iyer AS, Rumunu J, Laku RL, Wamala JF, Rodriguez-Barraquer I, Lessler J, Gignoux E, Luquero FJ, Leung DT, Gurley ES, Ciglenecki I. High Hepatitis E Seroprevalence Among Displaced Persons in South Sudan. Amer J Trop Med Hyg. 2017; 96(6):1296-1301. DOI:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0620.
- Younes HA. Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies (IgG, IgM) among Sudanese Pregnant women in Dongola Maternity Hospital, Northern Sudan. MSc. Thesis, Faculty of Medical Laboratory, Sudan University of Science & Technology, Khartoum, Sudan. http://repository.sustech.edu/handle/123456789/12802. 2015
- Mustafa E, Mustafa MO, Khair OM, Hussein AM, Elkhidir IM, Enan KA. Seroprevalence and Molecular Detection of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Among Pregnant Women in Port Sudan State. Inter J Sci Res Sci Eng Tech. 2017;3, (2):2394-4099.
- Rayis DA, Jumaa, AM, Gasim, GI, Karsany, MS., Adam, I. An outbreak of hepatitis E and high maternal mortality at Port Sudan, Eastern Sudan. Pathog Glob Health. 2013; Mar; 107(2): 66–68. DOI: 10.1179/2047773213Y.0000000076.
- Yusuf SU, Garbi MI, Saad FMS. Seroprevalence of hepatitis e among food handlers in central Khartoum Sudan. Inter J Multidis Res Develop. 2015; 2, (11): 351-354.
- Switaj TL, Winter KJ, Christensen SR. Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illness. Amer Fam Phys. 2015; Sep 1;92(5):358-365. DOI:10.1037/e548332006-001.
- Yeargin T, Gibson KE. Key characteristics of foods with an elevated risk for viral enteropathogen contamination. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2019; Apr;126(4):996-1010. DOI:10.1111/jam.14113.
- Baert L, Debevere J, Uyttendaele M. The efficacy of preservation methods to inactivate foodborne viruses. Inter J Food Microb. 2009; 31, (131):2-3):83-94. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.03.007.
- Ssepuuya G, Van Poucke C, Ediage EN, Mulholland C, Tritscher A, Verger P, Kenny M, Bessy C, De Saeger S. Mycotoxin contamination of sorghum and its contribution to human dietary exposure in four sub-Saharan countries. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2018 Jul; 35(7):1384-1393. DOI:10.1080/19440049.2018.1461253.
- Motarjemi Y. and Lelieveld H. Food safety management: a practical guide for the food industry. 2013; Academic Press.
- Elzupir AO, Suliman MA, Ibrahim IA, Fadul MH, Elhussein, AM. Aflatoxins levels in vegetable oils in Khartoum State, Sudan. Mycot Res. 2010; 26(2):69-73. DOI:10.1007/s12550-010-0041-z.
- Bennett J.W. and Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin Microb Rev. 2003;16, 497-516. DOI:10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003
- Ahmed SAA. and Elbashir A A. Determination of Aflatoxins in Groundnut and Groundnut products in Sudan using AflaTest® and HPLC. Memorias del Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, 2016;14(2):35-39. DOI: 10.18004/mem.iics/1812-9528/2016.014(02)35-039.
- Kang’ethe EK and Lang’a KA. Aflatoxin B1 and M1 contamination of animal feeds and milk from urban centers in Kenya. Afri. Health Sci. 2009; 9(4): 218–226.
- Mokhtari A, and Van Doren JM. An agent-based model for pathogen persistence and cross-contamination dynamics in a food facility. Risk Anal. 2019; 39: 992–1021. DOI: 10.1111/risa.13215.
- Verma R J. Aflatoxin Cause DNA Damage. Inter. J. Human Gen. 2004; 4, (4): 231-236. DOI:10.1080/09723757.2004.11885899.
- Kőszegi T, and Poór M. Ochratoxin A: Molecular Interactions, Mechanisms of Toxicity and Prevention at the Molecular Level. Toxins (Basel). 2016; Apr 15;8(4):111. DOI:10.3390/toxins8040111.
- Patial V, Asrani RK. Thakur M. Food-borne mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and public health impact, in Foodborne Diseases. Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Elsevier, 2018; pp. 239–274.
- Perincherry, L, Lalak-Kańczugowska J, Stępi Ł. Fusarium-produced mycotoxins in plant-pathogen interactions. Toxins (Basel), 2019; Nov 14;11(11):664. DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110664.
- Reddy KE, Lee W, Jeong JY, Lee Y, Lee HJ, Kim MS, Kim DW, Yu D, Cho A, Oh YK, Lee SD. Effects of deoxynivalenol- and zearalenone-contaminated feed on the gene expression profiles in the kidneys of piglets. Asian-Austr J Anim Sci. 2018; 31(1): 138–148. DOI:10.5713/ajas.17.0454.
- Pal, Singh N, Ansari, KM. Toxicological effects of patulin mycotoxin on the mammalian system: an overview. Toxic Res. 2017; 6, (6):764–771. DOI:10.1039/c7tx00138j.
- Jimenez-Garcia SN, Garcia-Mier L, Garcia-Trejo JF, Ramirez-Gomez XS, Guevara-Gonzalez RGA, Feregrino-Perez, A. Fusarium Mycotoxins and Metabolites that Modulate Their Production. In (Ed.), Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers. IntechOpen. 2018; DOI:10.5772/intechopen.72874
- Bhat R, Rai, RV, Karim, AA. Mycotoxins in food and feed: present status and future concerns. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2010; 9(1): 57–81.
- Ferreira, CD, Lang, GH, Lindemann, IS, Timm, NS, Hoffmann, JF, Ziegler, V, de Oliveira, M. Postharvest UV-C irradiation for fungal control and reduction of mycotoxins in brown, black, and red rice during long-term storage. Food Chem. 2021; 339, 127810. DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127810.
- Sulieman, AE, Ali, MA, Abdelrahim, AM. Effect of heat treatment on the level of aflatoxin Bl (AFBl) on some Sudanese peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) samples and peanut products. Sudan J Agri Res. 2007; 11, (9): 16-21.
- Abdel-Rahim, AM, Alsheikh, SM, Suleiman, AME. Aflatoxin Contamination of Some Crop Seed Types and their Products in the Gezira State, Sudan. Gezira J Eng Appl Sci. 2010; 5(2); 1-16.
Year 2024,
, 553 - 560, 28.06.2024
Siddiqa Hamza
,
Azza Mutwakil
,
Abdalbasıt Marıod
,
Rihab Mohammed
References
- WHO, Manual of rotavirus detection and characterization methods’, Biologicals, 2009, p. 143.
- Derber CF, Gadkowski LB. Foodborne Infectious Diseases—Historical Perspective and Overview. Food Microbiology: In Human Health and Disease. 2016; Jan 5:1.
- Seeger, Matthew W, and Julie MN. Modeling the recall and warning process in the foodborne contamination event: Perspectives from disaster warnings and crisis communication. Inter J Mass Emerg & Dis. 2010;28, (1): 115-144. DOI: 10.1177/028072701002800105
- Bosch A, Gkogka E, Le Guyader F, Loisy-Hamon F, Lee A, van Lieshout L, Marthi B, Myrmel M, Sansom A, Schultz A C, Winkler A, Zuber S, Phister T. Foodborne viruses: Detection, risk assessment, and control options in food processing, Inter J Food Microb. 2018; 285, 110–128. DOI:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.06.001.
- Theng-Theng F, and Lipp E, K. Enteric Viruses of Humans and Animals in Aquatic Environments: Health Risks, Detection, and Potential Water Quality Assessment Tools’, Microb. and Mol. Bio. Rev. 2005; 69(2): 357–371. DOI: 10.1128/MMBR.69.2.357-371.2005.
- Sattar SA, Jason T, Bidawid S, Farber J. Foodborne spread of hepatitis A: Recent studies on virus survival, transfer, and inactivation. Can. Infect. Dis. Med. Microbiol. 2000; 11(3): 159–163. DOI:10.1155/2000/805156
- Harrison L and DiCaprio E. Hepatitis E Virus: An Emerging Foodborne Pathogen, Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2018; 08, (5): 2018 DOI:10.3389/fsufs.2018.00014
- Magzoub MA, Bilal NE, Bilal JA, Alzohairy MA, Elamin B K, Gasim G I. Detection, and sequencing of rotavirus among Sudanese children. The Pan Afric. Med. J. 2017; 28, 87. DOI:11604/pamj.2017.28.87.11008
- Elawad M, and Masaad T. Epidemiology of Rotavirus Infection in Children Less than Five Years in Omdurman Paediatric Hospital, Khartoum, Sudan. Inter J Biomed Res. 2015; 6, (3):219-222. DOI:10.7439/ijbr.v6i3.1804
- Abdalla AE, Nagi, AM, Elawa, EH. Frequency of Rotavirus Infection among Children with Diarrhea in Omdurman Pediatric Hospital, Sudan. Sudan J. Med. Sci. 2013; 8(4):163–168.
- Dennehy PH. Transmission of rotavirus and other enteric pathogens in the home. Pedia. Infect. Dis. J. 2000; Oct;19, (10Suppl):S103-5. DOI:10.1097/00006454-200010001-00003. PMID: 11052397.
- Elhussein AM, Mustafa MO, Enan K. Molecular Detection of Rotavirus (A and B) and Astrovirus in Children Less than 5 Years with Gastroenteritis in Khartoum and Aljazeera States, Sudan, (January). Int. J. S. Res. Sci. Engg. Technol. September-October-2018; 4(10): 07-13.
- Rzeżutka A and Cook, N. Survival of human enteric viruses in the environment and food’, FEMS Microb, Rev. 2004; 28(4): 441–453. DOI: 10.1016/j.femsre.2004.02.001.
- Carter MJ. Enterically infecting viruses: Pathogenicity, transmission, and significance for food and waterborne infection. J App Microb. 2005; 98(6):1354–1380. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02635. x.
- Riewpaiboon A, Shin S, Le TP, Vu DT, Nguyen TH, Alexander N, Dang DA. Rotavirus Economic Study Group. Cost of rotavirus diarrhea for programmatic evaluation of vaccination in Vietnam. BMC Pub Health. 2016; Aug 11,16(1):777. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-016-3458-2
- Cook SM, Glass RI, Lebaron CW, Ho, Mei-shang. Global seasonality of rotavirus infection. Bull. WHO. 1990; 68(2) 171-177. ISSN: 00439686.
- Iturriza-Gomara M. and O’Brien SJ. Foodborne viral infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2016 Oct; 29(5):495-501. DOI: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000299
- Barclay L, Park GW, Vega E, Hall A, Parashar U, Vinjé J, Lopman B. Infection control for norovirus. Clin Microb Infec. 2014; 20(8): 731–740. DOI:10.1111/1469-0691.12674.
- Koopmans M. and Duizer E. Foodborne viruses: An emerging problem. Inter. J. Food Microb. 2004; Jan 1, 90(1):23-41. DOI:10.1016/s0168-1605(03)00169-7.
- Tatay, EM, El Hussein, AM, Mustafa, MO, Elkhidir, IM, Enan, KA. Molecular Detection of Norovirus 1, 2 in Children Less than 5 Years with Gastroenteritis in Al Jazeera State, Sudan. Inter J Sci Res Sci Eng Tech. 2018; 4, (9): 458–462.
- Ada, MA, Wang J, Enan, KA, Shen, H, Wang, H, El Hussein, AR, Musa, A, Khidi, IM, Ma, X. Molecular survey of viral and bacterial causes of childhood diarrhea in Khartoum State, Sudan. Front Microb. 2018; 9:112. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00112.
- Franco E, Meleleo C, Serino L, Sorbara D, Zaratti L. Hepatitis A: Epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World J Hep. 2012;4(3):68-73. DOI:10.4254/wjh. v4.i3.68.
- https://www.who.int
- Nor MAM, and Ali MA. Prevalence Rate of Hepatitis A Virus among Asymptomatic Food Handlers in Khartoum State (Sudan). Afri J Med. 2019; 4 (7):1-5.
- de Paula VS. Laboratory Diagnosis of Hepatitis A. Fut Viro. 2012;7(5):461-472.
- Gue PJ, Guthmann J, Nicand E. Outbreak of Hepatitis E Virus Infection in Darfur, Sudan: Effectiveness of Real-Time Reverse Transcription-PCR Analysis of Dried Blood Spots. J Clin Microbiol. 2009; Jun;47(6):1931-3. DOI:10.1128/JCM.02245-08.
- Nicand E, Armstrong GL, Enouf V, Guthmann JP, Guerin J-P, Caron M, Andraghetti, R. Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis E virus in Darfur, Sudan, and neighboring. Chad J Med Viro. 2005; 77: 519–521. DOI:10.1002/jmv.20487.
- Boccia D, Guthmann JP, Klovstad H, Hamid N, Tatay M, Ciglenecki I, Nizou JY, Nicand E, Guerin PJ. High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan. Clin Infect Dis. 2006; Jun 15;42(12):1679-84. DOI: 10.1086/504322.
- Eltayeb R, Gasim GI, Elhassan EM, Rayis, D, Abdullahi H. Maternal and newborn seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus at Medani Hospital, Sudan. F1000Res 2015; 4:823. DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.7041.
- Azman AS, Bouhenia M, Iyer AS, Rumunu J, Laku RL, Wamala JF, Rodriguez-Barraquer I, Lessler J, Gignoux E, Luquero FJ, Leung DT, Gurley ES, Ciglenecki I. High Hepatitis E Seroprevalence Among Displaced Persons in South Sudan. Amer J Trop Med Hyg. 2017; 96(6):1296-1301. DOI:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0620.
- Younes HA. Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies (IgG, IgM) among Sudanese Pregnant women in Dongola Maternity Hospital, Northern Sudan. MSc. Thesis, Faculty of Medical Laboratory, Sudan University of Science & Technology, Khartoum, Sudan. http://repository.sustech.edu/handle/123456789/12802. 2015
- Mustafa E, Mustafa MO, Khair OM, Hussein AM, Elkhidir IM, Enan KA. Seroprevalence and Molecular Detection of Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) Among Pregnant Women in Port Sudan State. Inter J Sci Res Sci Eng Tech. 2017;3, (2):2394-4099.
- Rayis DA, Jumaa, AM, Gasim, GI, Karsany, MS., Adam, I. An outbreak of hepatitis E and high maternal mortality at Port Sudan, Eastern Sudan. Pathog Glob Health. 2013; Mar; 107(2): 66–68. DOI: 10.1179/2047773213Y.0000000076.
- Yusuf SU, Garbi MI, Saad FMS. Seroprevalence of hepatitis e among food handlers in central Khartoum Sudan. Inter J Multidis Res Develop. 2015; 2, (11): 351-354.
- Switaj TL, Winter KJ, Christensen SR. Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illness. Amer Fam Phys. 2015; Sep 1;92(5):358-365. DOI:10.1037/e548332006-001.
- Yeargin T, Gibson KE. Key characteristics of foods with an elevated risk for viral enteropathogen contamination. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2019; Apr;126(4):996-1010. DOI:10.1111/jam.14113.
- Baert L, Debevere J, Uyttendaele M. The efficacy of preservation methods to inactivate foodborne viruses. Inter J Food Microb. 2009; 31, (131):2-3):83-94. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.03.007.
- Ssepuuya G, Van Poucke C, Ediage EN, Mulholland C, Tritscher A, Verger P, Kenny M, Bessy C, De Saeger S. Mycotoxin contamination of sorghum and its contribution to human dietary exposure in four sub-Saharan countries. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2018 Jul; 35(7):1384-1393. DOI:10.1080/19440049.2018.1461253.
- Motarjemi Y. and Lelieveld H. Food safety management: a practical guide for the food industry. 2013; Academic Press.
- Elzupir AO, Suliman MA, Ibrahim IA, Fadul MH, Elhussein, AM. Aflatoxins levels in vegetable oils in Khartoum State, Sudan. Mycot Res. 2010; 26(2):69-73. DOI:10.1007/s12550-010-0041-z.
- Bennett J.W. and Klich, M. Mycotoxins. Clin Microb Rev. 2003;16, 497-516. DOI:10.1128/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003
- Ahmed SAA. and Elbashir A A. Determination of Aflatoxins in Groundnut and Groundnut products in Sudan using AflaTest® and HPLC. Memorias del Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, 2016;14(2):35-39. DOI: 10.18004/mem.iics/1812-9528/2016.014(02)35-039.
- Kang’ethe EK and Lang’a KA. Aflatoxin B1 and M1 contamination of animal feeds and milk from urban centers in Kenya. Afri. Health Sci. 2009; 9(4): 218–226.
- Mokhtari A, and Van Doren JM. An agent-based model for pathogen persistence and cross-contamination dynamics in a food facility. Risk Anal. 2019; 39: 992–1021. DOI: 10.1111/risa.13215.
- Verma R J. Aflatoxin Cause DNA Damage. Inter. J. Human Gen. 2004; 4, (4): 231-236. DOI:10.1080/09723757.2004.11885899.
- Kőszegi T, and Poór M. Ochratoxin A: Molecular Interactions, Mechanisms of Toxicity and Prevention at the Molecular Level. Toxins (Basel). 2016; Apr 15;8(4):111. DOI:10.3390/toxins8040111.
- Patial V, Asrani RK. Thakur M. Food-borne mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and public health impact, in Foodborne Diseases. Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Elsevier, 2018; pp. 239–274.
- Perincherry, L, Lalak-Kańczugowska J, Stępi Ł. Fusarium-produced mycotoxins in plant-pathogen interactions. Toxins (Basel), 2019; Nov 14;11(11):664. DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110664.
- Reddy KE, Lee W, Jeong JY, Lee Y, Lee HJ, Kim MS, Kim DW, Yu D, Cho A, Oh YK, Lee SD. Effects of deoxynivalenol- and zearalenone-contaminated feed on the gene expression profiles in the kidneys of piglets. Asian-Austr J Anim Sci. 2018; 31(1): 138–148. DOI:10.5713/ajas.17.0454.
- Pal, Singh N, Ansari, KM. Toxicological effects of patulin mycotoxin on the mammalian system: an overview. Toxic Res. 2017; 6, (6):764–771. DOI:10.1039/c7tx00138j.
- Jimenez-Garcia SN, Garcia-Mier L, Garcia-Trejo JF, Ramirez-Gomez XS, Guevara-Gonzalez RGA, Feregrino-Perez, A. Fusarium Mycotoxins and Metabolites that Modulate Their Production. In (Ed.), Fusarium - Plant Diseases, Pathogen Diversity, Genetic Diversity, Resistance and Molecular Markers. IntechOpen. 2018; DOI:10.5772/intechopen.72874
- Bhat R, Rai, RV, Karim, AA. Mycotoxins in food and feed: present status and future concerns. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2010; 9(1): 57–81.
- Ferreira, CD, Lang, GH, Lindemann, IS, Timm, NS, Hoffmann, JF, Ziegler, V, de Oliveira, M. Postharvest UV-C irradiation for fungal control and reduction of mycotoxins in brown, black, and red rice during long-term storage. Food Chem. 2021; 339, 127810. DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127810.
- Sulieman, AE, Ali, MA, Abdelrahim, AM. Effect of heat treatment on the level of aflatoxin Bl (AFBl) on some Sudanese peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) samples and peanut products. Sudan J Agri Res. 2007; 11, (9): 16-21.
- Abdel-Rahim, AM, Alsheikh, SM, Suleiman, AME. Aflatoxin Contamination of Some Crop Seed Types and their Products in the Gezira State, Sudan. Gezira J Eng Appl Sci. 2010; 5(2); 1-16.