KİM KİME BAKIYOR? TÜRKİYE'DEKİ UKRAYNALILARIN TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYETLİ BAKIM DÖNGÜLERİ VE ULUSAŞIRI GÖÇLERİ

Year 2020, Volume: 60 Issue: 1, 312 - 334, 01.01.2020

Ayla Deniz

Abstract

Bu çalışmada toplumsal cinsiyet, bakım ve hareketlilik ilişkisi, Türkiye'deki Ukraynalı göçmenler örneği üzerinden tartışılmaktadır. Çalışmanın ana sorusu, bakımın toplumsal cinsiyetli inşasının, yaşlıların ulusaşırı hareketliliğinin yönünü nasıl etkilediğidir. Bu sorunun cevabı için Antalya, İstanbul ve Ankara'da yaşayan 3 farklı nesilden toplam 18 Ukraynalı kadınla derinlemesine görüşmeler yapıldı; onların hayat hikâyeleri dinlendi ve katılımlı gözlemler gerçekleştirildi. Çalışma sonunda anlaşıldı ki yaşlı Ukraynalı kadınlar, Türklerle evli olan kızları tarafından bakılmak için Türkiye'ye geliyorlar. Türkiye'ye gelen Ukraynalı kadınlar, bu bakım karşılığında torunlarına bakıyorlar. Böylece devletin ve erkeklerin rolünün azaldığı ve anne-kız evlat-torun arasında kurulan bir bakım döngüsü ortaya çıkıyor. Bu bakım döngüsü, yaşlı kadınların, kız evlatlarının bulunduğu coğrafyalara yöneldiği bir ulusaşırı hareketlilik paterni yaratmakta ve zamanla, genç kadınların göçüyle yaşlı kadınların göçünün rotaları birleşmeye başlamaktadır.

Keywords

Toplumsal Cinsiyet, Bakım Döngüsü, Ulusaşırı Göç, Ukraynalılar, Türkiye

WHO CARES WHOM? GENDERED CARE CIRCUITS AND TRANSNATIONAL MIGRATION OF UKRAINIANS IN TURKEY

Abstract

In this article, the relationship between gender, care and mobility is discussed on the case of Ukrainian migrants in Turkey. The main question of the article is how the gendered construction of care influences the direction of the elderly's transnational mobility. Indepth interviews were carried out with 20 Ukrainian women from 3 different generations who live in Antalya, İstanbul and Ankara for the answer to this question; narratives of their life stories were listened to and participant observations were made. It was found out as a result of the study that elderly Ukrainian women come to Turkey to be looked after by their daughters married to Turks. In return for this care, they look after their grandchildren. In this way, a care circuit constructed between the mother-daughtergrandchildren where the role of the state and men diminishes has emerged. This care circuit has created a transnational mobility where the elderly women go towards places where their daughters live and, in time, the migration routes of young and elderly women start to merge.

Keywords

Gender, Care Circuit, Transnational Migration, Ukrainians, Turkey

References

• Akarcalı, Sezer. Tüm Yönleriyle Sağlık Turizmi: Ukrayna Ülke Raporu. Ankara: Sağlık Bakanlığı, Sağlığın Geliştirilmesi Genel Müdürlüğü, Sağlık Turizmi Daire Başkanlığı, 2016. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Aldous, Joan and David M. Klein. ¨Sentiment and Services: Models of Intergenerational Relationships in Mid-life.¨ Journal of Marriage and the Family 53. 3 (1991): 595-608. Web. 20 September 2019.
• Baldassar, Loretta. “Transnational Families and Aged Care: The Mobility of Care and the Migrancy of Ageing.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33 (2007): 275–297. Web. 02 January 2019.
• ---. “Transnational Families and the Provision of Moral and Emotional Support: The Relationship Between Truth and Distance.” Identities 14. 4 (2007): 385-409. Web. 29 January 2019.
• Baldassar, Loretta and Laura Merla, eds. Transnational Families, Migration and the Circulation of Care: Understanding Mobility and Absence in Family Life. London: Routledge, 2013. Web. 05 October 2019.
• Baldassar, Loretta, Cora Baldock and Raelene Wilding. Families Caring across Borders: Migration, Aging and Transnational Caregiving. London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Baldock, Cora. ¨Migrants and Their Parents: Care-Giving from a Distance.¨ Journal of Family Issues 21 (2000): 205–224. Web. 19 February 2019.
• ---. ¨Long-Distance Migrants and Family Support: A Dutch Case-Study.¨ Health Sociology Review 12 (2003): 45–54. Web. 20 October 2019.
• Balkır, Canan and Berna Kırkulak. “Turkey the a New Destination for Retirement Migration.” Migration and Mobility in Europe: Trends, Patterns and Control. Ed.
• Heinz Fassmann, Max Haller and David Lane. Cheltenham, UK/ Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2009. 123-243. Web. 03 November 2019.
• Banks, Stephen P. ¨Intergenerational Ties Across Borders: Grandparenting Narratives by Expatriate Retirees in Mexico.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 23 (2009): 178-187. Web. 17 September 2019.
• Bauer, Gudrun and August Österle. ¨Mid and later life care work migration: Patterns of Re-organising Informal Care Obligations in Central and Eastern Europe.¨ Journal of Aging Studies, 37. 2 (2016): 81-93. Web. 11 October 2019.
• Buchcik, Johanna et. al. ¨Is Health-Related Quality of Life the Same for Elderly Polish Migrants, Turkish Migrants and German Natives? Testing the Reliability and Construct Validity of the Sf-36 Health Survey in a Cross-Cultural Comparison.¨ Cogent Psychology 4. 1 (2017): 1-15. Web. 01 November 2019.
• Coles, Roberto. ¨Elderly Narrative Reflections on the Contradictions in Turkish Village Family Life After Migration of Adult Children.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 15 (2001): 383-406. Web. 18 September 2019.
• Da, Wei Wei. ¨Transnational Grandparenting: Child Care Arrangements among Migrants from the People’s Republic of China to Australia.¨ Journal of International Migration and Integration 4. 1 (2003): 79-103. Web. 21 October 2019.
• Daisy, Kim. ¨Resisting Migrant Precarity: a Critique of Human Rights Advocacy for Marriage Migrants in South Korea.¨ Critical Asian Studies 49.1 (2017): 1-17. Web. 24 October 2019.
• Fedyuk, Olena and Marta Kindler, eds. Ukrainian Migration to the European Union: Lessons from Migration Studies. Switzerland: Springer: IMISCOE Research Series, 2016. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Finch, Janet and Jennifer Mason. Negotiating Family Responsibilities. London, New York: Tavistock/ Routledge, 1993. Web. 22 September 2019.
• Fors, Stefan and Carin Lennartsson. ¨Social Mobility, Geographical Proximity and Intergenerational Family Contact in Sweden.¨ Ageing and Society 28 (2008): 253-270. Web. 01 November 2019.
• Heikkinen, Sari Johanna and Kirsi Lumme-Sandt. ¨Transnational Connections of Later-Life Migrants.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 27 (2013): 198–206. Web. 25 October 2019.
• Herrera, Lima. F. ¨Transnational Families.¨ New Transnational Social Spaces: International Migration and Transnational Companies in the Early Twenty-First Century. Ed. Ludger Pries. London: Routledge, 2001. 77-93. Web. 11 October 2019.
• Hillcoat-Nallétamby, Sarah and Arunachalam Dharmalingam. ¨Mid-life Parental Support for Adult Children in New Zealand.¨ Journal of Sociology 39. 3 (2003): 271-290. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Hjälm, Anna. “Because We Know Our Limits”: Elderly Parents' Views on Intergenerational Proximity and Intimacy.” Journal of Aging Studies 26 (2012): 296-308. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Hochschild, Arlie. ¨Global Care Chains and Emotional Surplus Value.¨ On the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism. Ed. Will Hutton and Anthony Giddens. London: Jonathan Cape, 2000. 130-146. Web. 01 October 2019. Web. 15 October 2019.
• Hondagenou-Sotelo, Pierretta and Ernestine Avila. ¨‘I'm Here But I'm There’: The Meanings of Latina Transnational Motherhood.¨ Gender and Society 11 (1997): 548-571. Web. 21 October 2019.
• Inglis, Christine and Lenore Manderson. ¨Patterns of Child Care amongst Women in the Sydney Turkish Community.¨ Australian Journal of SociaI Issues 19. 2 (1984): 113-124. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Kaiser, Bianca. “Lifeworlds of E.U. Immigrants in Turkey.” Migration and Labour in Europe: Views from Turkey and Sweden. Ed. Emrehan Zeybekoğlu and Bo Johansson. İstanbul: MURCIR and NIWL, 2003. 269-289. Web. 17 October 2019.
• Karakuş, Bülent. Türkiye’de Yaşlılara Yönelik Hizmetler, Kurumsal Yaşlı Bakımı ve Kurumsal Yaşlı Bakımında İllerin Durumu. Ankara: Aile ve Sosyal Politikalar Bakanlığı, Engelli ve Yaşlı Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018. Web. 15 October 2019.
• Kofman, Eleonore et. al. Gender and International Migration in Europe: Employment, Welfare and Politics. London, UK: Routledge, 2000. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Lawton, Leora, Merril Silverstein and Vern Bengtson. ¨Affection, Social Contact, and Geographic Distance between Adult Children and Their Parents.¨ Journal of Marriage and the Family 56 (1994): 57-68. Web. 19 December 2019.
• Leifsen, Esben and Alexander Tymczuk. ¨Care at a Distance: Ukrainian and Ecuadorian Transnational Parenthood from Spain.¨ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 38. 2 (2012): 219-236. Web. 16 September 2019.
• Lekhan, Valeria, Volodomyr Rudiy and Ellen Nolte. Health Care Systems in Transition: Ukraine, Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe on behalf of the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2004. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Lewis, Jane and Susanna Giullari. ¨The Adult Worker Model Family, Gender Equity and Care: The Search for New Policy Principles and the Possibilities and Problems af a Capabilities Approach.¨ Economy and Policy 34. 1 (2005): 76- 104. Web. 01 November 2019.
• Lin, Ge and Peter A. Rogerson. ¨Elderly Parents and the Geographic Availability of Their Adult Children.¨ Research on Aging 17 (1995): 303-331. Web. 05 October 2019.
• Lulle, Aija and Russell King. ¨Ageing Well: The Time–Spaces of Possibility for Older Female Latvian Migrants in the UK.¨ Social and Cultural Geography 17. 3 (2016): 444-462. Web. 16 December 2019.
• Lutz, Helma and Ewa Palenga-Möllenbeck. ¨Care, Gender and Migration: Towards a Theory of Transnational Domestic Work Migration in Europe.¨ Journal of Contemporary European Studies 19. 3 (2011): 349-364. Web. 20 September 2019.
• Mancini, Jay A. and Rosemary Blieszner. ¨Aging Parents and Adult Children: Research Themes in Intergenerational Relations.¨ Journal of Marriage and Family 51.2 (1989): 275-290. Web. 01 November 2019.
• Marchetti, Sabrina and Alessandra Venturini. ¨Mothers and Grandmothers on the Move: Labour Mobility and the Household Strategies of Moldovan and Ukrainian Migrant Women in Italy.¨ International Migration 52. 5 (2014): 111- 126. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Nedashkivska, Alla. ¨Identity in Interaction: Language Practices and Attitudes of the Newest Ukrainian Diaspora in Canada.¨ East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies 5. 2 (2018): 111-147. Web. 21 October 2019.
• Orellana, Marjorie F. et. al. ¨Transnational Childhoods: The Participation of Children in Processes of Family Migration.¨ Social Problems 48. 4 (2001): 572– 591. Web. 26 September 2019.
• Parreńas, Rhacel Salazar. ¨Migrant Filipina Domestic Workers and the International Division of Reproductive Labor.¨ Gender and Society 14. 4 (2000): 560-580. Web. 18 December 2019.
• Peace, Sheila, Caroline Holland and Leonie Kellaher. Environment and Identity in Later Life. UK: McGraw-Hill Education, 2005. Web. 21 October 2019.
• Piper, Nicola and Sohoon Lee. ¨Marriage Migration, Migrant Precarity, and Social Reproduction in Asia: An Overview.¨ Critical Asian Studies 48.4 (2016): 473- 493. Web. 03 November 2019.
• Plaza, Dwaine. ¨Transnational Grannies: The Changing Family Responsibilities of Elderly African Caribbean-Born Women Resident in Britain.¨ Social Indicators Research 51 (2000): 75–105. Web. 21 October 2019.
• Schmalzbauer, Leah. ¨Searching for Wages and Mothering From Afar: The Case of Honduran transnational Families.¨ Journal of Marriage and Family 66 (2004): 1317-1331. Web. 20 October 2019.
• Sigad, Laura I. and Rivka A. Eisikovits. ¨Grandparenting across Borders: American Grandparents and Their Israeli Grandchildren in a Transnational Reality.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 27 (2013): 308-316. Web. 20 October 2019.
• Smith, Robert. C. Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Web. 04 November 2019.
• Spitze, Glenna and John R. Logan. ¨Sibling Structure and Intergenerational Relations.¨ Journal of Marriage and Family 53. 4 (1991): 871-884. Web. 19 December 2019.
• Suarez-Orozco, Carola and Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco. Children of Immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. Web. 23 September 2019.
• Südaş, İlkay and Mustafa Mutluer. "Daha İyi Bir Hayata Doğru: Yaşam Biçimi Göçü." Ege Coğrafya Dergisi 19. 1 (2010): 31-47. Web. 15 October 2019.
• Tezcan, Tolga. ¨On the Move in Search of Health and Care: Circular Migration and Family Conflict amongst Older Turkish Immigrants in Germany.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 46 (2008): 82-92. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Treas, Judith. ¨Transnational Older Adults and Their Families.¨ Family Relations 57 (2008): 468–478. Web. 03 December 2019.
• Treas, Judith and Shampa Mazumdar. ¨Older People in America's Immigrant Families: Dilemmas of Dependence, Integration, and Isolation.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 16 (2002): 243-258. Web. 24 September 2019.
• Vianello, Francesca A., Claudia Finotelli and Elisa Brey. ¨A Slow Ride Towards Permanent Residency: Legal Transitions and the Working Trajectories of Ukrainian Migrants in Italy and Spain.¨ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (2019): 1-18. Web. 27 October 2019.
• Ward, Russell and Glenna Spitze. ¨Sandwiched Marriages: The Implications of Child and Parent Relations for Marital Quality in Midlife.¨ Social Forces 77 (1998): 647-666. Web. 02 November 2019.
• Warnes, Antony M. et. al. ¨The Diversity and Welfare of Older Migrants in Europe.¨ Aging and Society 24 (2004): 307-326. Web. 28 September 2019.
• Wilding, Raelene. ¨Virtual Intimacies: Family Communications across Transnational Borders.¨ Global Networks 6 (2006): 125-142. Web. 1 March 2020.
• Zhou, Yanqiu Rachel. ¨Space, Time, and Self: Rethinking Aging in the Context of Immigration and Transnationalism.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 26 (2012): 232– 242. Web. 02 November 2019.
• Zechner, Minna. ¨Care of Older Persons in Transnational Settings.¨ Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008): 32-44. Web. 01 December 2019.