Microplastics, Environmental - Human Health Effects and Analysis Methods

Abstract

Plastics are used in many areas in our daily lives. So far, humans have produced over 9 billion tons of plastics. By 2050, almost 38 billion tons of plastics will be produced, of which 13 billion tons will be waste. Waste plastics will decompose over time to form microplastics (secondary microplastics), and will also be released to the environment in intentionally produced microplastics (primary microplastics) for use in cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. The distribution of microplastics can be found in more than 1 million parts per 1 cubic meter. The environment contributes to the accumulation and transport of microplasts, as well as the absorption of microplastics due to the absorption of micro-pollutants and some heavy metals in the environment causes the spread. This means that microplastics are exponentially dangerous. Microplastics have caused increasing concern as they pose a threat to both aquatic organisms and humans. Information about the negative effects of the introduction of microplasts into human beings on human health is very limited. Therefore, it is difficult to predict what kind of danger people face. The risks of micro plastics on human and environmental health needs urgent investigation. The aim of this article is to examine the potential effects of microplasts on environment and human health and analysis methods

Keywords

• Human and Environmental Health
• Microplastics
• Analysis Methods

Mikroplastikler, Çevre-İnsan Sağlığı Üzerine Etkileri Ve Analiz Yöntemleri

Abstract

Plastikler, günlük yaşantımızda birçok alanda kullanılmaktadır. İnsanlar şimdiye kadar 9 milyar tonun üzerinde plastik üretmişlerdir. 2050 yılına kadar neredeyse 38 milyar ton plastik üretilecek ve bunun 13 milyar tonu atık olacaktır. Atık plastikler zamanla bozunarak mikroplastikleri (ikincil mikroplastikleri) oluşturacak, ayrıca kozmetik, ilaç gibi sektörlerde kullanılmak üzere kasıtlı üretilen mikroplastiklerde (birincil mikroplastikler) çevreye salınmış olacaktır. Mikroplastiklerin dağılımı 1 metreküpte 1 milyondan fazla parçada bulunabilmekte 100 metreküpte 1 parçadan daha az da bulunabilmektedir. Çevre mikroplastik birikimine ve taşınımına katkıda bulunmakta, ayrıca mikroplastikler absorpsiyon nedeniyle ortamda bulunan mikro kirleticileri ve bazı ağır metalleri bünyesinde tutarak yayılmasına neden olmaktadır. Bu da mikroplastiklerin katlanarak tehlike oluşturduğu anlamına gelmektedir.

Mikroplastikler, hem suda yaşayan canlılar için hem de insanlar için tehdit oluşturduklarından dolayı gittikçe artan endişelere neden olmaktadır. Mikroplastiklerin çeşitli yollarla insan bünyesine alınmasının, insan sağlığı üzerinde oluşturabileceği olumsuz etkiler hakkında bilgiler çok sınırlıdır. Dolayısıyla insanların nedenli bir tehlike ile karşı karşıya kaldığını kestirmek zor olaktadır. Mikroplastiklerin insan ve çevre sağlığı üzerindeki risklerinin acil olarak araştırılmaya ihtiyacı vardır. Bu makalenin amacı, mikroplastiklerin, çevre ve insan sağlığına olan potansiyel etkilerini, analiz yöntemlerini incelemektir.

Keywords

• Mikroplastikler
• İnsan ve Çevre Sağlığı
• Analiz Yöntemleri

References

1. [1] Yurtsever M, “Mikroplastikler’e Genel Bir Bakış”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Fen Ve Mühendislik Dergisi, c. 17, no. 50, ss. 68-83, 2015.
2. [2] T. de Scisciolo, E. N. Mijts, T. Becker ve M. B. Eppinga, “Beach debris on Aruba, Southern Caribbean: Attribution to local land-based and distal marine-based sources”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, no. 106, pp. 49-57, 2016.
3. [3] R. C. Thompson, Y. Olsen, R. P. Mitchell, A. Davis, S. J. Rowland, A. W. John , D. McGonigle ve A. E. Russell , “Lost at Sea: Where is all the Plastic?”, Science, vol. 304, pp. 838, 2004.
4. [4] J. Wang, Z. Tan, J. Peng, Q. Qiu ve M. Li, “The behaviors of microplastics in the marine environment”, Marine Environment Resarch, vol. 113, pp. 7-17, 2016.
5. [5] C. J. Moore, “Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat”, Environmental Research, vol.108, no. 2, pp. 131-139, 2008.
6. [6] Q. Qiu, Z. Tan, J. Wang, J. Peng, M. Li ve Z. Zhan, “Extraction, enumeration and identification methods for monitoring microplastics in the environment”, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 176, pp. 102-109, 2016.
7. [7] J. Talvitie, A. Mikola, A. Koistinen ve O. Set€al€a, “Solutions to microplastic pollution – Removal of microplastics from wastewater effluent with advanced wastewater treatment technologies”, Water Research, vol. 401, pp. 123, 2017. [8] P. Farrel ve K. Nelson , “Trophic Level Transfer of Microplastic: Mytilus edulis (L.) to Carcinus maenas (L.)”, Environmental Pollution, vol. 177, pp. 1-3, 2013.
8. [9] M. A. Browne, A. Dissanayake , T. S. Galloway , D. M. Lowe ve R. C. Thompson, “Ingested Microscopic Plastic Translocates to the Circulatory System of the Mussel, Mytilus edulis”, Environmental Science&Technology, vol. 42, pp. 5026-5031, 2008.

9. [10] M. Cole , P. Lindeque, E. Fileman , C. Halsband , R. Goodhead , J. Moger ve T. S. Galloway , “Microplastic Ingestion by Zooplankton”, Environmental Science&Technology, vol. 17, no. 12, pp. 6646-6655, 2013.
10. [11] A. Ballent , S. Pando , A. Purser , M. F. Juliano ve L. Thomsen , “Modelled Transport of Benthic Marine Microplastic Pollution in the Nazaré Canyon”, Biogeosciences, vol. 10, pp. 7957-7970, 2013.
11. [12] S. A. Carr, J. Liu ve A. G. Tesoro, “Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants”, Water Research, cilt 91, pp. 174-182, 2016.
12. [13] S. A. Mason , D. Garneau , R. Sutton , Y. Chu , K. Ehmann , J. Barnes , D. Papazissimos ve D. L. Rogers, “Microplastic pollution is widely detected in US municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 218, pp. 1045-1054, 2016.
13. [14] M. Revel, A. Châtel ve C. Mouneyrac, “Micro(nano)plastics: A threat to human health?”, Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, cilt 1, pp. 17-23, 2017.
14. [15] L. Van Cauwenberghe, M. Claessens , M. B. Vandegehuchte ve C. R. Janssen , “Microplastics are taken up by mussels (Mytilus edulis) and lugworms (Arenicola marina) living in natural habitats”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 199, pp. 10-17, 2015.
15. [16] A. H. Abu-Hilal ve T. H. Al-Najjar , “Plastic Pellets on the Beaches of the Northern Gulf of Aqaba”, Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management, cilt 12, pp. 461-470, 2009. [17] M. Browne, P. Crump, S. Niven, E. Teuten , A. Tonkin, T. Galloway ve R. Thompson, “Accumulations of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide: Sources and Sinks”, Environmental Science&Technology, cilt 45, p. 9175−9179, 2011.
16. [18] M. J. Doyle MJ, W. Watson , N. M. Bowlin ve S. B. Sheavly , “Plastic Particles in Coastal Pelagic Ecosystems of the Northeast Pacific Ocean”, Marine Environment Resarch, cilt 71, pp. 41-52, 2011.
17. [19] A. B. Silva, S. B. Ana, I. J. Celine, J. P. Costa, A. C. Duarte ve T. A. Rocha-Santos, “Microplastics in the environment: Challenges in analytical chemistry”, Analytica Chimica Acta, cilt 1017, pp. 1-19, 2018.
18. [20] V. Hidalgo-Ruz, L. Gutow, R. C. Thompson ve M. Thiel , “Microplastics in the Marine Environment: A Review of the Methods used for Identification and Quantification”, Environmental Science&Technology, cilt 46, pp. 3060-3075, 2012.
19. [21] S. L. Wright , R. C. Thompson ve T. S. Galloway , “The Physical Impacts of Microplastics on Marine Organisms: A Review”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 178, pp. 483-492, 2013.
20. [22] E. Besseling, A. Wegner , E. M. Foekema , M. J. Van den Heuvel-Greve ve A. A. Koelmans , “Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina”, Environmental Science&Technology, cilt 47, no. 1, pp. 593-600, 2012.
21. [23] Y. Mato, T. Isobe , H. Takada , H. Kanehiro , C. Ohtake ve T. Kaminuma , “Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment”, Environmental Science&Technology, cilt 35, no. 2, pp. 318-324, 2001. [24] M. Eriksen , S. Mason , S. Wilson, C. Box, A. Zellers A, W. Edwards ve S. Amato , “Microplastic Pollution in the Surface Waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 77, no. 1, pp. 177-182, 2013.
22. [25] O. Güven, K. Gökdag , B. Jovanovic ve A. E. Kõdeys, “Microplastic litter composition of the Turkish territorial waters of the Mediterranean Sea, and its occurrence in the gastrointestinal tract of fish”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 223, pp. 286-294, 2017.
23. [26] K. Jabeen, L. Su , J. Li , D. Yang , C. Tong , J. Mu ve H. Shi , “Microplastics and mesoplastics in fish from coastal and fresh waters of China”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 221, pp. 141-149, 2017.
24. [27] L. Van Cauwenberghe ve C. R. Janssen, “Microplastics in bivalves cultured for human consumption”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 193, pp. 65-70, 2014.
25. [28] A. Mathalon ve P. Hill, “Microplastic fibers in the intertidal ecosystem surrounding Halifax Harbor, Nova Scotia”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 81, no. 1, pp. 69-79, 2014.
26. [29] G. Liebezeit ve E. Liebezeit , “Non-pollen particulates in honey and sugar”, Food Additives & Contaminants, cilt 30, pp. 2136-2140, 2013.
27. [30] G. Liebezeit ve E. Liebezeit , “Synthetic particles as contaminants in German beers”, Food Additives & Contaminants, cilt 31, no. 9, pp. 1574-1578, 2014.
28. [31] A. Karami, A. Golieskardi, C. Keong Choo, V. Larat, T. S. Galloway ve B. Salamatinia, “The presence of microplastics in commercial salts from different countries”, Scientific Reports, 2017.
29. [32] M. E. Iñiguez, J. A. Conesa ve A. Fullana, “Microplastics in Spanish Table Salt”, Scientific Reports, cilt 7, p. 8620, 2017.
30. [33] L. M. Hernandez , N. Yousefi ve N. Tufenkji , “Are There Nanoplastics in Your Personal Care Products?”, Environmental Science & Technology Letters, cilt 4, no. 7, pp. 280-285, 2017.
31. [34] E. A. Sykes , Q. Dai , K. M. Tsoi , D. M. Hwang ve W. W. Chan, “Nanoparticle exposure in animals can be visualized in the skin and analysed via skin biopsy”, Nature Communications, cilt 5, no. 3796, 2014.
32. [35] M. Revel, A. Châtel ve C. Mouneyrac, “Micro(nano)plastics: A threat to human health?”, Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, cilt 1, pp. 17-23, 2018.
33. [36] R. Dris, J. Gasperi, M. Saad, C. Mirande ve B. Tassin, “Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: a source of microplastics in the environment?”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 104, no. 1-2, pp. 290-293, 2016.
34. [37] A. A. Horton , A. Walton , D. J. Spurgeon , E. Lahive ve C. Svendsen , “Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities”, Science of The Total Environment, cilt 586, pp. 127-141, 2017.
35. [38] L. Lu, . T. Luo, . Y. Zhao, C. Cai, Z. Fu ve . Y. Jin, “Interaction between microplastics and microorganism as well as gut microbiota: A consideration on environmental animal and human health”, Science of the Total Environment, cilt 667, pp. 94-100, 2019.
36. [39] S. Sharma ve S. Chatterjee, “Microplastic pollution, a threat to marine ecosystem and human health: a short review”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, cilt 24, no. 27, p. 21530–21547, 2017.
37. [40] Y. Deng, Y. Zhang, B. Lemos ve H. Ren, “Tissue accumulation of microplastics in mice and biomarker responses suggest widespread health risks of exposure”, Scientific Reports, 2017.
38. [41] A. Nel, “Toxic Potential of Materials at the Nanolevel”, Science, cilt 311, no. 5761, pp. 622-627, 2007.
39. [42] M. Smith, D. C. Love, C. M. Rochman ve R. A. Neff, “Microplastics in Seafood and the Implications for Human Health”, Food, Health, and the Environment , cilt 5, no. 3, pp. 375-386, 2018.
40. [43] S. L. Wright ve F. J. Kelly, “Plastic and human health: a micro issue?”, Environment Science Tecnology, cilt 51, no. 12, p. 6634e6647, 2017.
41. [44] J. L. Pauly, S. J. Stegmeier, H. A. Allaart, R. T. Cheney, P. J. Zhang ve A. G. Mayer, “Inhaled cellulosic and plastic fibers found in human lung tissue”, Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, cilt 7, no. 5, pp. 419-428, 1998.
42. [45] R. Dris, J. Gasperi, V. Rocher, M. Saad, N. Renault ve B. Tassin, “Microplastic contamination in an urban area: a case study in Greater Paris”, Environmental Chemistry, cilt 12, pp. 592-599, 2015.
43. [46] J. Gasperi, R. Dris, C. Mirande-Bret, C. Mandin, V. Langlois ve B. Tassin, “First overview of microplastics in indoor and outdoor air” , 15th EuCheMS International Conference on Chemistry and the Environment , Leipzig, Germany, 2015.
44. [47] J. C. Prata, “Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health?”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 234, pp. 115-126, 2018.
45. [48] C. Chang, “The immune effects of naturally occurring and synthetic nanoparticles”, Journal of Autoimmunity, cilt 34, no. 3, pp. 234-246, 2010.
46. [49] P. A. Borm, “Particle Toxicology: From Coal Mining To Nanotechnology”, Inhalation Toxicology , cilt 14, no. 3, pp. 311-324, 2002.
47. [50] A. D. Vethaak ve H. A. Leslie, “Plastic Debris Is a Human Health Issue”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 50, no. 13, pp. 6825-6826, 2016.
48. [51] J. P. Harrison, M. Sapp, M. Schratzberger ve A. M. Osborn, “Interactions Between Microorganisms and Marine Microplastics: A Call for Research”, Marine Technology Society, cilt 45, pp. 12-20, 2011.
49. [52] A. McCormick, T. J. Hoellein, S. A. Mason, J. Schluep ve J. J. Kelly, “Microplastic is an Abundant and Distinct Microbial Habitat in an Urban River”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 48, pp. 11863-11871, 2014. [53] Y. X. Jin, J. Z. Xia, Z. H. Pan, J. J. Yang, W. C. Wang ve Z. W. Fu, “Polystyrene microplastics induce microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation in the gut of adult zebrafish”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 235, p. 322–329., 2018.
50. [54] L. Lu, Z. Q. Wan, T. Luo, Z. W. Fu ve Y. X. Jin, “Polystyrene microplastics induce gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic lipid metabolism disorder in mice”, Science of The Total Environment, Cilt %1 / %2631-632, pp. 449-458, 2018.
51. [55] Y. Jin , L. Lua, W. Tu , T. Luoa ve Z. Fua, “Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice”, Science of the Total Environment, cilt 649, pp. 308-317, 2019.
52. [56] A. L. Andrady, “The plastic in microplastics: A review”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 119, no. 1, pp. 12-22, 2017.
53. [57] A. A. Koelmans, M. Kooi, K. L. Law ve E. van Sebille, “All is not lost: deriving a top-down mass budget of plastic at sea”, Environmental Research Letters, cilt 12, p. 114028, 2017.
54. [58] C. G. Avio , S. Gorbi , M. Milan, M. Benedetti , D. Fattorini , G. d’Errico , M. Pauletto , L. Bargelloni ve F. Regoli , “Pollutants bioavailability and toxicological risk from microplastics to marine mussels”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 198, pp. 211-222, 2015.
55. [59] N. Hussain, V. Jaitley ve A. T. Florence, “Recent advances in the understanding of uptake of microparticulates across the gastrointestinal lymphatics”, Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, cilt 50, no. 1-2, pp. 107-142, 2001.
56. [60] S. B. Sjollema, P. Redondo-Hasselerharm, H. A. Leslie, M. S. Kraak ve A. D. Vethaak, “Do plastic particles affect microalgal photosynthesis and growth”, Aquatic Toxicology, cilt 170, pp. 259-261, 2016.
57. [61] E. Besseling, A. Wegner, E. M. Foekema ve M. J. van den Heuvel-Greve, “Effects of microplastic on fitness and PCB bioaccumulation by the lugworm Arenicola marina”, Environmental Science Tecnology, cilt 41, no. 1, pp. 593-600, 2013.
58. [62] A. L. Andrady , “Microplastics in the Marine Environment”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 62, p. 1596–1605, 2011.
59. [63] A. Churg ve M. Brauer, “Ambient atmospheric particles in the airways of human lungs”, Ultrastruct Pathol, cilt 26, no. 4, pp. 353-361, 2000.
60. [64] C. Perrino, “Atmospheric particulate matter”, Proc. CISB Symp, pp. 35-43, 2010.
61. [65] J. P. Desforges , M. Galbraith ve P. S. Ross, “Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean”, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, cilt 69, no. 3, pp. 320-330, 2015.
62. [66] L. A. Barboza, L. R. Vieira, V. Branco, N. Figueiredo, F. Carvalho, C. Carvalho ve L. Guilhermino, “Microplastics cause neurotoxicity, oxidative damage and energy-related changes and interact with the bioaccumulation of mercury in the European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758)”, Aquatic Toxicology, cilt 195, pp. 49-57, 2018.
63. [67] D. Peixotoa , C. Pinheiroa , J. Amorima, L. Oliva-Telesa, L. Guilherminoa ve M. . N. Vieiraa, “Microplastic pollution in commercial salt for human consumption: A review”, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, cilt 219, pp. 161-168, 2019.
64. [68] D. Yang, H. Shi, L. Li, J. Li, K. Jabeen ve P. Kolandhasamy, “Microplastic Pollution in Table Salts from China”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 49, p. 13622–13627, 2015.
65. [69] M. Renzi ve A. Blašković, “Litter & microplastics features in table salts from marine origin: Italian versus Croatian brands”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 135, p. 62–68, 2018.
66. [70] R. M. Rocha, D. F. Costa, M. L. Filho, R. M. Bezerra, D. H. Medeiros, A. A. Silva, C. N. Araújo ve L. X. Filho, “Brazilian solar saltworks - ancient uses and future possibilities”, Aquatic Biosystems, cilt 8, no. 8, 2012.
67. [71] J. Kim, H. Lee, S. Kim ve H. Kim, “Global Pattern of Microplastics (MPs) in Commercial Food-Grade Salts: Sea Salt as an Indicator of Seawater MP Pollution”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 52, no. 21, p. 12819–12828, 2018. [72] R. Serrano, J. Nácher-Mestre, T. Portolés, F. Amat ve F. Hernández, “Non-target screening of organic contaminants in marine salts by gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry”, Talanta, cilt 85, no. 2, pp. 877-884, 2011.
68. [73] S. Rist, B. Carney Almroth, N. B. Hartmann ve T. M. Karlsson, “A critical perspective on early communications concerning human health aspects of microplastics”, Science of The Total Environment, cilt 626, p. 720–726, 2018.
69. [74] P. Westerhoff, P. Prapaipong, E. Shock ve A. Hillaireau, “Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water”, Water Research, cilt 42, p. 551–556, 2008.
70. [75] D. Brennecke, B. Duarte, F. Paiva, I. Caçador ve J. Canning-Clode, “Microplastics as vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment”, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, cilt 178, pp. 189-195, 2016. [76] H. Bouwmeester, P. H. Hollman ve R. B. Peters, “Potential Health Impact of Environmentally Released Micro- and Nanoplastics in the Human Food Production Chain: Experiences from Nanotoxicology”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 49, no. 15, p. 8932–8947, 2015.
71. [77] J. B. Derraik, “The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 44, p. 842–852, 2002.
72. [78] Z. Wang, X. Li, H. Shi, M. Sun, T. Ding ve C. Wang, “Effects of residual plastic film on soil hydrodynamic parameters and soil structure”, Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, cilt 46, no. 140, pp. 101-106 , 2015.
73. [79] L. E. Huerta, H. Gertsen, H. Gooren, P. Peters, T. Salanki, M. van der Ploeg, E. Besseling, A. A. Koelmans ve V. Geissen, “Microplastics in the Terrestrial Ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae)”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 50, pp. 2685-2691, 2016.
74. [80] M. T. Rose, T. R. Cavagnaro, C. A. Scanlan, T. J. Rose, T. Vancov, S. Kimber, I. R. Kennedy, R. S. Kookana ve L. Van Zwieten, “Impact of Herbicides on Soil Biology and Function”, Advances in Agronomy, cilt 136, pp. 133-220, 2016.
75. [81] X. Yang, . C. . P. Bento , H. Chen, H. Zhang, S. Xue, E. . H. Lwanga, P. Zomer, C. . J. Ritsema ve V. Geissen, “Influence of microplastic addition on glyphosate decay and soil microbial activities in Chinese loess soil”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 242, pp. 338-347, 2018. [82] C. . B. Crawford ve B. Quinn, “Microplastic Collection Techniques, Microplastic pollutants” ,Elsevier, pp. 179-202, 2017.
76. [83] W. Wang ve J. Wang, “Investigation of microplastics in aquatic environments: An overview of the methods used, from field sampling to laboratory analysis”, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, cilt 108, pp. 195-202, 2018.
77. [84] L. Mai, L. J. Bao, L. Shi, C. S. Wong ve E. Y. Zeng, “A review of methods for measuring microplastics in aquatic environments”, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, cilt 12, pp. 11319-11332, 2018.
78. [85] M. B. Zobkov ve E. E. Esiukova, “Microplastics in a Marine Environment: Review of Methods for Sampling, Processing, and Analyzing Microplastics in Water, Bottom Sediments, and Coastal Deposits”, Oceanology, cilt 58, no. 1, pp. 137-143, 2018.
79. [86] M.-T. Nuelle, J. H. Dekiff, D. Remy ve E. Fries, “A new analytical approach for monitoring microplastics in marine sediments”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 184, pp. 161-169, 2014.
80. [87] L. Cauwenberghe, A. Vanreusel, J. Mees ve C. R. Janssen, “Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments” Environmental Pollution, cilt 182, pp. 495-499, 2013.
81. [88] M. Löder ve G. Gerdts, “Methodology Used for the Detection and Identification of Microplastics—A Critical Appraisal”, Marine Anthropogenic Litter, pp. 201-227, 2015.
82. [89] H. K. Imhof, J. Schmid, . R. Niessner, . N. P. Ivleva ve . C. Laforsch, “A novel, highly efficient method for the separation and quantification of plastic particles in sediments of aquatic environments”, Limnology and oceanography, methods, cilt 10, pp. 524-537, 2012. [90] S. Huppertsberg ve T. P. Knepper, “Instrumental analysis of microplastics-benefits and challenges”, Anal Bioanal Chem, cilt 25, pp. 6343-6352, 2018.
83. [91] M. Claessens, L. Van Cauwenberghe, M. B. Vandegehuchte ve C. R. Janssen, “New techniques for the detection of microplastics in sediments and field collected organisms”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 70, pp. 227-233, 2013.
84. [92] E. M. Foekema , C. De Gruijter , M. T. Mergia, J. A. van Franeker, A. J. Murk ve A. A. Koelmans , “Plastic in north sea fish”, Environmental Science & Technology, cilt 47, no. 15, pp. 8818-8824, 2013.
85. [93] C. M. Rochman , A. Tahir , S. L. Williams SL, D. V. Baxa, R. Lam , J. T. Miller, F. C. Teh , S. Werorilangi ve S. J. Teh, “Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption.”, Scientific Reports, cilt 5, p. 14330, 2015.
86. [94] F. Collard , B. Gilbert , P. Compère , G. Eppe, K. Das, T. Jauniaux ve E. Parmentier , “Microplastics in livers of European anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus, L.)”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 229, pp. 1000-1005, 2017.
87. [95] F. Gusmão , M. D. Domenico , A. Z. Amaral , A. Martínez , B. C. Gonzalez, K. Worsaae , J. A. Ivar do Sul ve P. D. Cunha Lana , “In situ ingestion of microfibres by meiofauna from sandy beaches”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 216, pp. 584-590, 2016. [96] J. S. Hanvey, . P. J. Lewis, J. L. Lavers, . N. D. Crosbie, K. Pozode ve . B. O. Clarke, “A review of analytical techniques for quantifying microplastics in sediments”, Analytical Methods, cilt 9, p. 1369, 2017.
88. [97] W. Wang, A. W. Ndungu , Z. Li ve J. Wang , “Microplastics pollution in inland freshwaters of China: A case study in urban surface waters of Wuhan, China.”, Science of the Total Environment, cilt 575, pp. 1369-1374, 2017. [98] Y. . K. Song, S. . H. Hong, M. Jang, G. . M. Han, M. Rania, J. Lee ve W. . J. Shim, “A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples”, Marine Pollution Bulletin, cilt 93, no. 1-2, pp. 202-209, 2015.
89. [99] K. Zhang, J. Su, X. Xiong, X. Wu, C. Wu ve J. Liu, “Microplastic pollution of lakeshore sediments from remote lakes in Tibet plateau, China”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 219, pp. 450-455, 2016.
90. [100] E. Fries, J. H. Dekiff, J. Willmeyer, M.-T. Nuelle, . M. Ebert ve D. Remy, “Identification of polymer types and additives in marine microplastic particles using pyrolysis-GC/MS and scanning electron microscopy”, Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, cilt 10, pp. 1946-1956, 2013.
91. [101] W. . J. Shim , S. . H. Hongab ve S. . E. Eo, “Identification methods in microplastic analysis: a review”, Analytical Methods, cilt 9, pp. 1384-1391, 2017.
92. [102] A. S. Tagg, M. Sapp, J. P. Harrison ve J. J. Ojeda, “Identification and Quantification of Microplastics in Wastewater Using Focal Plane Array-Based Reflectance Micro-FT-IR Imaging”, Analytical Chemistry, cilt 87, no. 12, pp. 6032-6040, 2015.
93. [103] A. M. Elert, R. Becker, E. Duemichen, P. Eisentraut, J. Falkenhagen, H. Sturm ve U. Braun, “Comparison of different methods for MP detection: What can we learn from them, and why asking the right question before measurements matters?”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 231, pp. 1256-1264, 2017.
94. [104] C. F. Araujo, M. M. Nolasco, A. M. Ribeiro ve P. J. Ribeiro-Claro, “Identification of microplastics using Raman spectroscopy: Latest developments and future prospects”, Water Research, cilt 142, pp. 426-440, 2018.
95. [105] A. Käppler, D. Fischer, S. Oberbeckmann, G. Schernewski, M. Labrenz, K.-J. Eichhorn ve B. Voit, “Analysis of environmental microplastics by vibrational microspectroscopy: FTIR, Raman or both?”, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, cilt 408, no. 29, p. 8377–8391, 2016.
96. [106] A. Kappler, M. Fischer, B. M. Scholz-Bottcher, S. Oberbeckmann, M. Labrenz, D. Fischer, K. J. Eichhorn ve B. Voit, “Comparison of μ-ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and py-GCMS as identification tools for microplastic particles and fibers isolated from river sediments”, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, cilt 410, no. 21, p. 5313–5327, 2018.
97. [107] E. Dumichen, P. Eisentraut, C. G. Bannick, A. K. Barthel, R. Senz ve U. Braun, “Fast identification of microplastics in complex environmental samples by a thermal degradation method”, Chemosphere, cilt 174, pp. 572-584, 2017.
98. [108] J. H. Dekiff, D. Remy, J. Klasmeier ve E. Fries, “Occurrence and spatial distribution of microplastics in sediments from Norderney”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 186, pp. 248-256, 2014.
99. [109] J. Gabrys, G. Hawkins ve M. Michael, “The Material Politics of Plastic”, UK: Routledge, 2013.
100. [110] O. Setälä , V. Fleming-Lehtinen ve M. Lehtiniemi , “Ingestion and Transfer of Microplastics in the Planktonic Food Web”, Environmental Pollution, cilt 185, pp. 77-78, 2014.