Gelir Eşitsizliği, Serbest Ticaret ve Gıda Güvencesi Arasında Nasıl Bir İlişki Var? Orta ve Düşük Gelirli Ülkeler İçin Bir Panel Nedensellik Analizi

Abstract

Birleşmiş Milletler'in Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma hedeflerinden biri de sıfır açlığa ulaşmak, bir başka deyişle açlığa karşı küresel mücadeledir. Günümüzde dünyada yetersiz beslenen insanların sayısı artmaya devam etmektedir. Yoksulluk ve gelir eşitsizliği, gıda güvencesizliği riskini artıran önemli bir faktördür ve düşük gelirli ülkelerde orta gelirli ve yüksek gelirli ülkelere göre gıda güvencesizliği çok daha ciddi boyuttadır. 1990'lı yıllardan sonra dünya genelinde ticaretin serbestleşmesi ve tarım ürünleri ile diğer mal ve hizmetlerin ithalat ve ihracatının artmasının da gıda arzı yetersizliğini ve dolayısıyla gıda güvencesini etkileyen önemli faktörler arasında olduğu söylenebilir. Bu çalışmada 2001-2021 dönemi yetersiz beslenme yaygınlığının yüksek olduğu 19 seçilmiş ülkede gıda güvencesi, gelir eşitsizliği ve ticari dışa açıklık arasındaki ilişkininin nasıl olduğunu ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Söz konusu değişkenler arasında nedensellik ilişkisi olup olmadığı Dumitrescu-Hurlin (2012) nedensellik analizi ile araştırılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları, gelir eşitsizliği ve ticari dışarı açıklığın gıda güvencesizliğinin sebebi olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• Ticari Açıklık
• Gelir Eşitsizliği
• Gıda Güvencesi
• Yetersiz Beslenme

What is The Relationship between Income Inequality, Free Trade, and Food Security? A Panel Causality Analysis for Middle- and Low-Income Countries

Abstract

One of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals is to achieve zero hunger, in other words, the global fight against hunger. Today, the number of undernourished people in the world continues to increase. Poverty and income inequality are important factors that increase the risk of food insecurity, and food insecurity is much more serious in low-income countries than in middle-income and high-income countries. It can be said that the liberalization of trade worldwide after the 1990s and the increase in the import and export of agricultural products and other goods and services are also important factors affecting food supply insufficiency and therefore food security. This study aims to reveal the relationship between food security, income inequality, and trade openness in 19 selected countries with a high prevalence of undernourishment in the period 2001-2021. Whether there is a causal relationship between the variables in question was investigated with Dumitrescu-Hurlin’s (2012) causality analysis. The analysis results reveal that income inequality and trade openness are the causes of food security.

Keywords

• Trade Openness
• Income Inequality
• Food Security
• Undernourishment

References

1. Akinbode, S., Oladele., O., Adebola, P. and Onyeukwu, C. O. (2022). Inequality, population growth, and hunger in Sub Saharan Africa. SN Social Sciences, 2(11), 250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00554-x
2. Berry R.A. and Cline W.R. (1979). Agrarian structure and productivity in developing countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
3. Bezuneh, M. and Yeheyis. Z. (2012). The effect of trade liberalization on food security: The experience of selected African countries. Journal of African Development, 14, 13–26. Retrieved from https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/
4. Breusch, T.S. and Pagan. A.R (1980). The LaGrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometries. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
5. Chikhuri, K. (2013). Impact of alternative agricultural trade liberalization strategies on food security in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. International Journal of Social Econometrics, 40, 188–206. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291311291491
6. Dithmer, J. and Abdulai, A. (2017). Does trade openness contribute to food security? A dynamic panel analysis. Food Policy, 69, 218-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.04.008
7. Dumitrescu, E.I. and Hurlin, C. (2012). Testing for granger noncausality in heterogeneous panels. Economic Modelling, 29(4), 1450-1460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.02.014Get rights and content
8. Fajgelbaum, P.D., Goldberg, P.K., Kennedy, P.J. and Khandelwal, A.K. (2020). The return to protectionism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz036

9. Fan, L., Aspy, N.N., Smrity, D.Y., Dewan, Md.F., Kibria, Md.G., Haseeb, M., Kamal, M. and Rahman, Md.S. (2024). Moving towards food security/ in South Asian Region: Assessing the role of agricultural trade openness, production and employment. Heliyon, 10(e33522), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33522
10. FAO. (2019). Dünyada gıda güvenliği ve beslenme durumu. Erişim adresi: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2af8b237-09dc-47c7-b53e-393d52ba87ba/content
11. FAO. (2024). The state of food security and nutrition in the world: Financing to end hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition in all its forms. Retrieved from https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000151116/download/?_ga=2.28514495.2011697506.1735494938- 2125659244.1735494938&_gac=1.226249320.1735494938.CjwKCAjwvKi4BhABEiwAH2gcw7CPGYjfTBRrn3VhZDh2DEhr2UsL-Gznn2kGtP6HZxMozormX3VXlxoC14oQAvD_BwE
12. Fusco, G., Coluccia, B. and Leo, F.D. (2020). Effect of trade openness on food security in the EU: A dynamic panel analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124311
13. Gujarati, D. (2016). Örneklerle ekonometri (Çev. N. Bolatoğlu). Ankara: BB101 Yayınları.
14. Güloğlu, B. and İvrendi, M. (2008) Output fluctuations: Transitory or permanent? The case of Latin America. Applied Economics Letters, 17(4), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850701735880
15. Khalid, M.W., Kayani, A.S., Alotaibi, J.M., Muddassir, M., Alotaibi, B.A. and Kassem, H.S. (2020). Regional trade and food security challenges: The case of South Asian countries. Agricultural Economics, 66(7), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.17221/3/2020-AGRICECON
16. Koca, R. ve Somuncu, M. (2021). Gıda güvencesi konusunda Türkiye için bir değerlendirme. Ankara Üniversitesi Çevre Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(2), 1-11. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/aucevrebilim/
17. Koç, G. ve Uzmay, A. (2019). Küresel gıda güvencesinin izlenmesi ve haritalanması üzerine bir değerlendirme. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 16(2), 237-244. https://doi.org/10.25308/aduziraat.562781
18. Larrea, C. and Kawachi, I. (2005). Does economic inequality affect child malnutrition? The case of Ecuador. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.04.024
19. Li, S. and Zhang, Y. (2024). More unequal food distribution in low-income countries exacerbates global hunger risk. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 46, 108-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.02.009
20. Lukwa, A.T., Siya, A., Zablon, K.N., Azam, J.M. and Alaba, O.A. (2020). Socioeconomic inequalities in food insecurity and malnutrition among under five children: Within and between-group inequalities in Zimbabwe. BMC Public Health. 20, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-22277/v3
21. Malthus T.R. (1826). An essay on the principles of population. London: John Murray.
22. Marson. M., Saccone, D. and Vallino, E. (2023). Total trade, cereals trade and undernourishment: New empirical evidence for developing countries. Review of World Economics, 159, 299–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10290-022-00468-z
23. Mary, S. (2019). Hungry for free trade? Food trade and extreme hunger in developing countries. Food Security, 11, 461-477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00908-z
24. Pesaran, M.H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels (Cambridge Working Papers in Economics No. 0435). https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.5113
25. Pesaran, M.H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2), 265–312. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.951
26. Pesaran, M.H. and Yamagata, T. (2008). Testing slope homogeneity in large panels. Journal of Econometrics, 743(1), 50-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.010
27. Scanlan S.J. (2003). Food security and comparative sociology. International Journal of Sociology, 33(3), 88–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/15579336.2003.11770272
28. Sen, A. (1981). Poverty and famines: An essay on entitlement and deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
29. Simola, A., Boysen, O., Ferrari, E., Nechifor, V. and Boulanger, P. (2022). Economic integration and food security - The case of the AfCFTA. Global Food Security, 35, 100651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100651
30. Simon, J. (1998). The ultimate resource 2. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
31. Solt, F. (2016). The standardized world income inequality database. Social Science Quarterly, 97(5), 1267-1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12295
32. Sun, Z. and Zhang, D. (2021). Impact of trade openness on food security: Evidence from panel data for Central Asian countries. Foods, 10(12), 3012. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10123012
33. SWIID. (2023). Standardized world income database [Dataset]. Retrieved from https://fsolt.org/swiid/
34. UN. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for sustainable development; Resolution adopted by the General Assembly (A/RES/70/1). Retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
35. WB. (2024). World development indicators [Dataset]. Retrieved from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
36. Winters, L.A., McCulloch, N. and McKay, A. (2004). Trade liberalization and poverty: The evidence so far. Journal of Economic Literature, 42(1), 72–115. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/
37. WTO. (2020). Covid-19 and agriculture. A story of resilience. Retrieved from https://www.wto.org/