Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

General Features of Reform Movement of Gaius Gracchus and Socio-Political Limits of Roman Republic

Year 2022, Volume: 14 Issue: 4, 811 - 834, 30.11.2022

Okan Demir

Abstract

The reform program of Tiberius Gracchus which mainly aimed to stop proleterazation of farmer soldiers was suppressed with blood by the senatorial oligarchy in 133 B.C.. Gaius Gracchus was elected as tribune of plebs ten years after the death of his brother and his followers and became the leader of the popular party. Gaius maintained his brother’s program by founding new colonies and protecting small-sized farmers. With recognizing some privileges and creating opportunities to collect the support of various parts of the Roman community such as equities, plebs urbana, and plebs rustica differentiated his program from his brother’s. Gaius Gracchus’s intention for granting the franchise to Italian allies thus to raise the number of his supporters from the whole of Italy was encountered opposition from the optimates, the party of senatorial oligarchy. Gaius Gracchus’ political strategy contributed to the spectrum reaching socio-political limits of Repulic within political polarization in the Late Republican period.

References

  • Augustinus, De Civitate Dei, kullanılan metin Augustine, On the City of God against the Pagans, Vol.1 books 1-3, (trns G. E. McCracken), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1957. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Appianos, Bella Civilia, kullanılan metin Appian, Roman History, Volume III-Volume IV, (trns. H. White), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Appianos, Mithridateios, kullanılan metin Appian, Roman History, Volume II, (trns H. White), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Florus, Epitoma De Tito Livio, kullanılan metin Florus, Epitome of Roman History, (trns E. S. Forster), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1929. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cassius Dio, Romaike, kullanılan metin Dio Cassius, Roman History, Volume I-IX, (trns E. Cary, H. B. Foster), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1914. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cato, De Agricultura, kullanılan metin Cato, Varro, On Agriculture, (trns W. D. Hooper, H. B. Ash), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1934. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Ad Familiares, kullanılan metin Cicero, Letters to Friends, Vols. I-III. (Edit- trns D. R. S. Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Brutus, kullanılan metin Cicero, Brutus, Orator, (Edit-trns G. L. Hendrickson – H. M. Hubbell), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1939. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Domo Sua, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Archia, Post Reditum in Senatu, Post Reditum ad Quirites, De Domo Sua, De Haruspicum Responsis, Pro Plancio, (trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1923. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cicero, De Officiis, kullanılan metin Cicero, On Duties, (trns W. Miller), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Orotore, kullanılan metin Cicero, On the Orator, Vols. I-II. (Edit –trns E. W. Sutton – H. Rackham), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1942 (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Re Publica, kullanılan metin Cicero, On the Republic, On the Laws, (Edit –trns C. W. Keyes), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1928 (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, In Catilinam, kullanılan metin Cicero, In Catilinam 1-4, Pro Murena, Pro Sulla, Pro Flacco, (trns C. Macdonald), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1976. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, In Verrem, kullanılan metin Cicero, The Verrine Orations, Volume I: Against Caecilius. Against Verres, Part 1; Part 2, Books 1-2. (trns L. H. G. Greenwood), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1928. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Philippicae, kullanılan metin Cicero, Philippics 1-6, (Edit- trns D. R. Shackleton Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2010. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Post Reditu in Senatu, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Archia, Post Reditum in Senatu, Post Reditum ad Quirites, De Domo Sua, De Haruspicum Responsis, Pro Plancio, (trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1923. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cicero, Pro Cluentio, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia, Pro Caecina, Pro Cluentio, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo, (trns H. Grose Hodge), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Milone, In Pisonem, Pro Scauro, Pro Fonteio, Pro Rabirio Postumo, Pro Marcello, Pro Ligario, Pro Rege Deiotaro, (Edit-trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Pro Sestio, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Sestio, In Vatinium, (trns R. Gardner), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1958. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, kullanılan metin Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, (trns J. E. King), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, kullanılan metin Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume I: Books 1-2, (trns C. H. Oldfather), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1933. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Dionysios Halicarnassos, Romaike Archaiologia, kullanılan metin Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Books 1-2, Transl. E. Cary, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1937. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Gellius, Noctes Atticae, kullanılan metin Gellius, Attic Nights, Volume I: Books 1-5. (trns J. C. Rolfe), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Festus, De verborum Significatione, Sextus Pompeius Festus, De verborum significatu quae supersunt cum Pauli epitome, (Edidit Aemilius Thewrewk de Ponor), Budapestini Sumptibus academiae litterarum Hungaricae, 1889.
  • Fontes Iuris Romani Antiqui (FIRA), 7. Edn., Ed.C. G. Bruns, Tubingae I.C.B. Mohrii, Tübingen, 1909.
  • Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, kullanılan metin Livy, History of Rome, (trns C. Roberts), New York, E. P. Dutton and Co., New York,1912- Livy, History of Rome by Titus Livius, books nine to twenty-six, (trns D. Spillan, C. Edmonds), John Child and son printers, London,1849.
  • Livius, Periochae, kullanılan metin Livy, Rome's Mediterranean Empire Books 41-45 and the Periochae, (trns. J. D. Chaplin), Oxford World Classics, Oxford University Press, 2009.
  • Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta Librarae Rei Publicae (ORF), (Edit H. Malcovati), Torino, 1955.
  • Ovidius, Fasti, kullanılan metin Ovid, Fasti, (trns J. G. Frazer), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Camillus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume II: Themistocles and Camillus, Aristides and Cato Major, Cimon and Lucullus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1914. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Cicero, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume VII: Demosthenes and Cicero, Alexander and Caesar, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1919. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, C. Gracchus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1921. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Tib. Gracchus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1921. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Marius, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume IX: Demetrius and Antony, Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1920. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illusturibus kullanılan metin Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illusturibus, (Edit F. Pichlmayr), Leipzig, 1911. (Teubner).
  • Sallustius, Bellum Iugurthinum, kullanılan metin Sallust, The War with Catiline, The War with Jugurtha, (Edit J. T. Ramsey, trns. J. C. Rolfe), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2013. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Sallustius, Epistulae ad Caesarem, kullanılan metin Sallust, Fragments of the Histories, Letters to Caesar, Edit.-trns J. T. Ramsey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2015. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Scholia Bobiensia, kullanılan metin Scholia in Ciceronis Orationes Bobiensia, (Edidit Paulus Hildebrandt) Lipsiae, 1907. (Teubner).
  • Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium, kullanılan metin Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings, Volume I: Books 1-5. (Edit-trns D. R. S. Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2000. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Velleius Paterculus, Historiae Romanae, kullanılan metin Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, (trns F. W. Shipley), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1924. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • ARSLAN, M., Mithradates Eupator VI: Roma’nın Büyük Düşmanı, İstanbul, 2007.
  • BADIAN, E., Foreign Clientelae, 264-70 B.C., Clanderon Press, Oxford, 1958.
  • BADIAN, E., “Tiberius Gracchus and the Beginning of the Roman Revolution”, Aufstieg und Niedergang Der Römischen Welt, Band 1, (Edit H.Temporini), Walter De Gruyter, Berlin, 1972, 668-731.
  • BADIAN, E., Publicans and Sinners: Private Enterprise in the Service of the Roman Republic, Cornell University Press, New York, 1972.
  • BADIAN, E., “Provincia/Province”, The Oxford Ancient Dictionary, 3rd. Edn, (Edit S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth), Oxford, 1999, 1265-1267.
  • BAUMAN, R. A., “The Gracchan Agrarian Commission: Four Questions”, Historia, Vol.28, No.4, 1979, 385-408.
  • BERGER, A., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1991.
  • BOREN, H. C., “Livius Drusus, t.p. 122, and His Anti-Gracchan Program”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 52, No.1, 1956, 27-36.
  • BROUGHTON, T. R., The Magisrates of The Roman Republic, Vol. I, The American Philological Association, New York, 1951.
  • BROUGHTON, T. R., The Magistratuses of The Roman Republic, Vol. II, The American Philological Association, New York, 1952.
  • BRUNT, P. A., “The Roman Mob”, Past and Present, No 35, 1966, 3-27.
  • BRUNT, P.A., The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988.
  • BRUNT, P. A., Italian Manpower 225 BC-14 AD, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2001.
  • COLES, A., “Roman Colonies in Republic and Empire”, Ancient History, Vol.3, No.1, 2020, 1-119.
  • CORNELL, T. J.,“ The recovery of Rome” The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Vol.7, Part 2, Cambridge University Press, 2006, s. 309-350.
  • ÇİL, S., Tiberius Gracchus’un Hayatı ve Roma’da Toprak Reformu, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir, 2021.
  • DART, C., “The Impact of the Gracchan Commission and the Dandis Power of the Triumvirs”, Hermes, Vol. 139, No.3, 2011, ss. 337-357.
  • DAVENPORT, C., A History of the Roman Equestrian Order, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019.
  • DRUMMOND, A., “Rome in the fifth century II: the Citizen Community”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Vol.7, Part 2, Cambridge University Press, 2006, s. 172-242.
  • EREN, S., “Senatus Consultum Ultimum:Eski Roma’da Olağanüstü Yönetim Kararı”, Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, C. 24, S. 2, 2018, 1125-1145.
  • ERGİN, G., Anadolu’da Roma Hakimiyeti Direniş ve Düzen, İş Bankası Yayınları, İstanbul, 2013.
  • FRAZEL, T. D., “The Composition and Circulation of Cicero's In Verrem”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 1, 2004,128-142.
  • GÖZLÜ, A., “Sosyal ve Siyasi Boyutları Perspektifinden Tiberius Gracchus’un (İÖ 163-133) Toprak Reformu Girişimi”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 14/6, 2019, 3237-3248.
  • HARRIS, W., War And Imperialism In Republican Rome 327-70 B.C., Paperback Edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.
  • HENDERSON, M . I ., “The Establishment of the Equester Ordo”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, 1963, 61-72.
  • HILL, H., “The So-Called Lex Aufeia (Gellius xi. 10)”. The Classical Review, Vol.62, No.3, 1948, 112-113.
  • HILL, H., The Roman Middle Class In The Republican Period, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1952.
  • HOPKINS, K., Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1978.
  • JORY, E.J., “Gladiators in the Theatre”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1986, 537-539.
  • KAY, P., Rome’s Economic Revolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014.
  • KAYA, M. A., “Anadolu'da Roma Eyaletleri: Sınırlar ve Roma Yönetimi”, Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, Sayı 38, Cilt 24, 2005, 11-30.
  • KAYA, M. A., “Anadolu’da Roma Egemenliği (İÖ 205-25)” Doğu Batı, Yıl 11, Sayı 49, 2009, 196-233.
  • KAYA, M. A., Türkiye’nin Eskiçağ Tarihi III: Hellenistik Dönem, Bilge Kültür Sanat, İstanbul, 2019.
  • LEWIS, C. T. A Latin Dictionary, Clanderon Press, Oxford, 1958.
  • LINTOTT, A., “P. Clodius Pulcher –Felix Catilina?”, Greece and Rome, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1967, 157-169.
  • LINTOTT, A., “Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80, 1990, ss. 1-16.
  • LINTOTT, A., “Political History, 146-95 B.C.”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit J. Crook, A. Lintott, E. Rawson), Vol. 9, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006, 40-103.
  • LINTOTT, A., Violence In Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1968.
  • MAGIE, D., Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century After Chirist, Vol. 1: Text , Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1950.
  • MARSHALL, A. J., “Verres and Judicial Corruption”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1967, 408-413.
  • MATTINGLY, H. B., “The Property Qualifications of the Roman Class”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol.27, No.2, 1937, 99-107.
  • MATTINGLY, H. B., “the Agrarian Law of the "tabula Bembina"”, Latomus, Vol. 30, Fas. 2, 1971, 281-293.
  • MEIER, C., “Populares”, Paulys Realencyclopadie Der Classischen Altertumwissenschaft, Supplement Band X, 1965, 549-615.
  • MITCHELL, R., Patricians and Plebeians: the Origin of the Roman State, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1990.
  • MOMMSEN, T., The History of Rome, Vol. III, (trns. W. Dickson), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1863.
  • MOREL, P., “Transformation of Italy, 300-133 BC”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Cambridge University Press, Vol. 8, 2006, s. 493-516.
  • MORSTEIN-MARX, R., Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge Univiersity Press, Cambridge, 2004.
  • PLAUMANN, G., “Das sogenannte Senatus consultum ultimum, die Quasidiktatur der späteren römischen Republik”, Klio, Vol.13, 1913, 321–386.
  • RAWSON, E., “Discrimina Ordinum: The Lex Julia Theatralis”, Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 55, 1987, 83-114.
  • RICHARD, J.C., “Patricians and Plebeians: The Origins of a Social Dichotomy” Social Struggles in Archaic Rome New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, (Edit K. Raaflaub), Oxford, 2005, s. 107-127.
  • ROSE, H. J., “Patricians and Plebeians at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 12, s. 106-133.
  • ROSELAAR, S. T., Public Land in the Roman Republic: a Social and Economic History of the Ager Publicus, Phd. Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, 2008.
  • ROSENSTEIN, N., Rome at War Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic, The Universityof North Carolina Press, London.
  • ROWLAND, R., “C. Gracchus and the Equites”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol.96, 1965, 361- 373.
  • SCULLARD, H.H., From Gracchi to Nero, A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, Taylor & Francis e-Library, Routledge, New York, 2011.
  • SHERWIN-WHITE, A., The Roman Citizenship, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1973.
  • SHERWIN-WHITE, A. N., “The Date of the Lex Repetundarum and Its Consequences”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 62, 1972, 83-99
  • STEPHENSON, A., Public Lands and Agrarian Laws of the Roman Republic, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1891.
  • STOCKTON, D., The Gracchi, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1979.
  • ŞAHİN, O. G., “ ‘Lex Sempronia Tiberiana’: Tiberius Gracchus’un Toprak Reformu ve Toplumsal Kökenleri”, Anadolu Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 183-283.
  • TAŞDÖNER, K., Anadolu’da Roma Eyaletleri Augustus Dönemi, Bilge Kültür Sanat, İstanbul, 2017.
  • TOYNBEE, A. J., Hannibal's Legacy The Hannibalic War’s Effects on Roman Life, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, London, 1965.
  • UNGERN-STERNBERG, J. von, “The End of the Conflict of the Orders”, Social Struggles in Archaic Rome New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, (Edit K. Raaflaub), Oxford, 2005, s. 312-332.
  • WIRSZUBSKI, Ch, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome During the Late Republic and Early Principate, 2nd. Edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambrigde, 1968.
  • YEO, C. A., “The Founding and Function of Roman Colonies”, The Classical World, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1959, 104-130.

GAİUS GRACCHUS’UN REFORM PROGRAMININ GENEL KARAKTERİ VE ROMA CUMHURİYETİ’NİN SOSYO-POLİTİK SINIRLARI

Year 2022, Volume: 14 Issue: 4, 811 - 834, 30.11.2022

Okan Demir

Abstract

Tiberius Gracchus’un İÖ II. yüzyıldan itibaren giderek derinleşen ve Roma ordusunun bel kemiği niteliğindeki çiftçi-askerleri mülksüzleşmesiyle gün yüzüne çıkan krizi toprak reformuyla aşmayı hedefleyen programı, nobilitastan (ünlü ailelerin mensupları) terkip eden senato oligarşisi tarafından kanla bastırılmıştır. Gaius Gracchus, ağabeyi Tiberius ve takipçilerinin öldürülmesinden yaklaşık onyıl sonra tribun seçilerek halk partisinin (populares) liderliğine geçmiştir. Gaius Gracchus’un koloni kurulumu ve küçük üreticileri koruyan çeşitli yasalar üzerinden ağabeyinin reformlarını sürdürmüştür. Gaius’un stratejisini farklılaştıran Roma siyasetinde kökleri patricii-plebes mücadelesi dönemine değin uzanan populares (halkçılar) optimates (“en iyiler”- muhafazakarlar) şeklinde İÖ III. yüzyıldan itibaren tebarüz eden siyasi kutuplaşma içerisinde populares yararına toplumun farklı kesimlerinden destek sağlama çabasıdır. O, refrom programını başarılı kılmak amacıyla equites (atlılar), plebs urbana (şehirli avam) ve plebs rustica (taşralı halk) gibi Roma toplumunun farklı kesimlerine imkanlar ve imtiyazlar yaratmıştır. İtalya’daki müttefik hukuklu topluluklara oy hakkını vererek siyasi mücadelesine tüm İtalya sathına yayarak destek toplamak istemesi, senato oligarşisini meydana getiren optimatesin engellemesiyle karşılaşmıştır. Gaius Gracchus’un reform programı kapsamında izlediği strateji, Geç Cumhuriyet dönemindeki siyasi kutuplaşmada Cumhuriyeti sosyo-politik sınırlarına ulaştıracak tayfı sunmuştur.

Keywords

Roma Cumhuriyeti Toprak Reformu Populares Senato Equites

References

  • Augustinus, De Civitate Dei, kullanılan metin Augustine, On the City of God against the Pagans, Vol.1 books 1-3, (trns G. E. McCracken), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1957. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Appianos, Bella Civilia, kullanılan metin Appian, Roman History, Volume III-Volume IV, (trns. H. White), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Appianos, Mithridateios, kullanılan metin Appian, Roman History, Volume II, (trns H. White), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Florus, Epitoma De Tito Livio, kullanılan metin Florus, Epitome of Roman History, (trns E. S. Forster), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1929. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cassius Dio, Romaike, kullanılan metin Dio Cassius, Roman History, Volume I-IX, (trns E. Cary, H. B. Foster), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1914. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cato, De Agricultura, kullanılan metin Cato, Varro, On Agriculture, (trns W. D. Hooper, H. B. Ash), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1934. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Ad Familiares, kullanılan metin Cicero, Letters to Friends, Vols. I-III. (Edit- trns D. R. S. Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Brutus, kullanılan metin Cicero, Brutus, Orator, (Edit-trns G. L. Hendrickson – H. M. Hubbell), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1939. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Domo Sua, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Archia, Post Reditum in Senatu, Post Reditum ad Quirites, De Domo Sua, De Haruspicum Responsis, Pro Plancio, (trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1923. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cicero, De Officiis, kullanılan metin Cicero, On Duties, (trns W. Miller), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1913. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Orotore, kullanılan metin Cicero, On the Orator, Vols. I-II. (Edit –trns E. W. Sutton – H. Rackham), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1942 (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, De Re Publica, kullanılan metin Cicero, On the Republic, On the Laws, (Edit –trns C. W. Keyes), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1928 (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, In Catilinam, kullanılan metin Cicero, In Catilinam 1-4, Pro Murena, Pro Sulla, Pro Flacco, (trns C. Macdonald), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1976. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, In Verrem, kullanılan metin Cicero, The Verrine Orations, Volume I: Against Caecilius. Against Verres, Part 1; Part 2, Books 1-2. (trns L. H. G. Greenwood), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1928. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Philippicae, kullanılan metin Cicero, Philippics 1-6, (Edit- trns D. R. Shackleton Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2010. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Post Reditu in Senatu, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Archia, Post Reditum in Senatu, Post Reditum ad Quirites, De Domo Sua, De Haruspicum Responsis, Pro Plancio, (trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1923. (Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cicero, Pro Cluentio, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Lege Manilia, Pro Caecina, Pro Cluentio, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo, (trns H. Grose Hodge), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Milone, In Pisonem, Pro Scauro, Pro Fonteio, Pro Rabirio Postumo, Pro Marcello, Pro Ligario, Pro Rege Deiotaro, (Edit-trns N. H. Watts), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Pro Sestio, kullanılan metin Cicero, Pro Sestio, In Vatinium, (trns R. Gardner), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1958. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, kullanılan metin Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, (trns J. E. King), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, kullanılan metin Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume I: Books 1-2, (trns C. H. Oldfather), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1933. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Dionysios Halicarnassos, Romaike Archaiologia, kullanılan metin Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Books 1-2, Transl. E. Cary, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1937. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Gellius, Noctes Atticae, kullanılan metin Gellius, Attic Nights, Volume I: Books 1-5. (trns J. C. Rolfe), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1927. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Festus, De verborum Significatione, Sextus Pompeius Festus, De verborum significatu quae supersunt cum Pauli epitome, (Edidit Aemilius Thewrewk de Ponor), Budapestini Sumptibus academiae litterarum Hungaricae, 1889.
  • Fontes Iuris Romani Antiqui (FIRA), 7. Edn., Ed.C. G. Bruns, Tubingae I.C.B. Mohrii, Tübingen, 1909.
  • Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, kullanılan metin Livy, History of Rome, (trns C. Roberts), New York, E. P. Dutton and Co., New York,1912- Livy, History of Rome by Titus Livius, books nine to twenty-six, (trns D. Spillan, C. Edmonds), John Child and son printers, London,1849.
  • Livius, Periochae, kullanılan metin Livy, Rome's Mediterranean Empire Books 41-45 and the Periochae, (trns. J. D. Chaplin), Oxford World Classics, Oxford University Press, 2009.
  • Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta Librarae Rei Publicae (ORF), (Edit H. Malcovati), Torino, 1955.
  • Ovidius, Fasti, kullanılan metin Ovid, Fasti, (trns J. G. Frazer), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Camillus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume II: Themistocles and Camillus, Aristides and Cato Major, Cimon and Lucullus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1914. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Cicero, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume VII: Demosthenes and Cicero, Alexander and Caesar, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1919. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, C. Gracchus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1921. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Tib. Gracchus, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1921. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Plutarkhos, Marius, kullanılan metin Plutarch, Lives, Volume IX: Demetrius and Antony, Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius, (trns B. Perrin), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1920. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illusturibus kullanılan metin Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illusturibus, (Edit F. Pichlmayr), Leipzig, 1911. (Teubner).
  • Sallustius, Bellum Iugurthinum, kullanılan metin Sallust, The War with Catiline, The War with Jugurtha, (Edit J. T. Ramsey, trns. J. C. Rolfe), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2013. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Sallustius, Epistulae ad Caesarem, kullanılan metin Sallust, Fragments of the Histories, Letters to Caesar, Edit.-trns J. T. Ramsey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2015. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Scholia Bobiensia, kullanılan metin Scholia in Ciceronis Orationes Bobiensia, (Edidit Paulus Hildebrandt) Lipsiae, 1907. (Teubner).
  • Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium, kullanılan metin Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings, Volume I: Books 1-5. (Edit-trns D. R. S. Bailey), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2000. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • Velleius Paterculus, Historiae Romanae, kullanılan metin Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, (trns F. W. Shipley), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1924. (Loeb Classical Library).
  • ARSLAN, M., Mithradates Eupator VI: Roma’nın Büyük Düşmanı, İstanbul, 2007.
  • BADIAN, E., Foreign Clientelae, 264-70 B.C., Clanderon Press, Oxford, 1958.
  • BADIAN, E., “Tiberius Gracchus and the Beginning of the Roman Revolution”, Aufstieg und Niedergang Der Römischen Welt, Band 1, (Edit H.Temporini), Walter De Gruyter, Berlin, 1972, 668-731.
  • BADIAN, E., Publicans and Sinners: Private Enterprise in the Service of the Roman Republic, Cornell University Press, New York, 1972.
  • BADIAN, E., “Provincia/Province”, The Oxford Ancient Dictionary, 3rd. Edn, (Edit S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth), Oxford, 1999, 1265-1267.
  • BAUMAN, R. A., “The Gracchan Agrarian Commission: Four Questions”, Historia, Vol.28, No.4, 1979, 385-408.
  • BERGER, A., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, The American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1991.
  • BOREN, H. C., “Livius Drusus, t.p. 122, and His Anti-Gracchan Program”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 52, No.1, 1956, 27-36.
  • BROUGHTON, T. R., The Magisrates of The Roman Republic, Vol. I, The American Philological Association, New York, 1951.
  • BROUGHTON, T. R., The Magistratuses of The Roman Republic, Vol. II, The American Philological Association, New York, 1952.
  • BRUNT, P. A., “The Roman Mob”, Past and Present, No 35, 1966, 3-27.
  • BRUNT, P.A., The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988.
  • BRUNT, P. A., Italian Manpower 225 BC-14 AD, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2001.
  • COLES, A., “Roman Colonies in Republic and Empire”, Ancient History, Vol.3, No.1, 2020, 1-119.
  • CORNELL, T. J.,“ The recovery of Rome” The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Vol.7, Part 2, Cambridge University Press, 2006, s. 309-350.
  • ÇİL, S., Tiberius Gracchus’un Hayatı ve Roma’da Toprak Reformu, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir, 2021.
  • DART, C., “The Impact of the Gracchan Commission and the Dandis Power of the Triumvirs”, Hermes, Vol. 139, No.3, 2011, ss. 337-357.
  • DAVENPORT, C., A History of the Roman Equestrian Order, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2019.
  • DRUMMOND, A., “Rome in the fifth century II: the Citizen Community”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Vol.7, Part 2, Cambridge University Press, 2006, s. 172-242.
  • EREN, S., “Senatus Consultum Ultimum:Eski Roma’da Olağanüstü Yönetim Kararı”, Marmara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, C. 24, S. 2, 2018, 1125-1145.
  • ERGİN, G., Anadolu’da Roma Hakimiyeti Direniş ve Düzen, İş Bankası Yayınları, İstanbul, 2013.
  • FRAZEL, T. D., “The Composition and Circulation of Cicero's In Verrem”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 1, 2004,128-142.
  • GÖZLÜ, A., “Sosyal ve Siyasi Boyutları Perspektifinden Tiberius Gracchus’un (İÖ 163-133) Toprak Reformu Girişimi”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 14/6, 2019, 3237-3248.
  • HARRIS, W., War And Imperialism In Republican Rome 327-70 B.C., Paperback Edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.
  • HENDERSON, M . I ., “The Establishment of the Equester Ordo”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 53, 1963, 61-72.
  • HILL, H., “The So-Called Lex Aufeia (Gellius xi. 10)”. The Classical Review, Vol.62, No.3, 1948, 112-113.
  • HILL, H., The Roman Middle Class In The Republican Period, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1952.
  • HOPKINS, K., Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1978.
  • JORY, E.J., “Gladiators in the Theatre”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1986, 537-539.
  • KAY, P., Rome’s Economic Revolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014.
  • KAYA, M. A., “Anadolu'da Roma Eyaletleri: Sınırlar ve Roma Yönetimi”, Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi, Sayı 38, Cilt 24, 2005, 11-30.
  • KAYA, M. A., “Anadolu’da Roma Egemenliği (İÖ 205-25)” Doğu Batı, Yıl 11, Sayı 49, 2009, 196-233.
  • KAYA, M. A., Türkiye’nin Eskiçağ Tarihi III: Hellenistik Dönem, Bilge Kültür Sanat, İstanbul, 2019.
  • LEWIS, C. T. A Latin Dictionary, Clanderon Press, Oxford, 1958.
  • LINTOTT, A., “P. Clodius Pulcher –Felix Catilina?”, Greece and Rome, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1967, 157-169.
  • LINTOTT, A., “Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80, 1990, ss. 1-16.
  • LINTOTT, A., “Political History, 146-95 B.C.”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit J. Crook, A. Lintott, E. Rawson), Vol. 9, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006, 40-103.
  • LINTOTT, A., Violence In Republican Rome, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1968.
  • MAGIE, D., Roman Rule in Asia Minor to the End of the Third Century After Chirist, Vol. 1: Text , Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1950.
  • MARSHALL, A. J., “Verres and Judicial Corruption”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 2, 1967, 408-413.
  • MATTINGLY, H. B., “The Property Qualifications of the Roman Class”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol.27, No.2, 1937, 99-107.
  • MATTINGLY, H. B., “the Agrarian Law of the "tabula Bembina"”, Latomus, Vol. 30, Fas. 2, 1971, 281-293.
  • MEIER, C., “Populares”, Paulys Realencyclopadie Der Classischen Altertumwissenschaft, Supplement Band X, 1965, 549-615.
  • MITCHELL, R., Patricians and Plebeians: the Origin of the Roman State, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1990.
  • MOMMSEN, T., The History of Rome, Vol. III, (trns. W. Dickson), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1863.
  • MOREL, P., “Transformation of Italy, 300-133 BC”, The Cambridge Ancient History (CAH), 2nd Edn., (Edit F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin), Cambridge University Press, Vol. 8, 2006, s. 493-516.
  • MORSTEIN-MARX, R., Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge Univiersity Press, Cambridge, 2004.
  • PLAUMANN, G., “Das sogenannte Senatus consultum ultimum, die Quasidiktatur der späteren römischen Republik”, Klio, Vol.13, 1913, 321–386.
  • RAWSON, E., “Discrimina Ordinum: The Lex Julia Theatralis”, Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 55, 1987, 83-114.
  • RICHARD, J.C., “Patricians and Plebeians: The Origins of a Social Dichotomy” Social Struggles in Archaic Rome New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, (Edit K. Raaflaub), Oxford, 2005, s. 107-127.
  • ROSE, H. J., “Patricians and Plebeians at Rome”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 12, s. 106-133.
  • ROSELAAR, S. T., Public Land in the Roman Republic: a Social and Economic History of the Ager Publicus, Phd. Thesis, Leiden University, Leiden, 2008.
  • ROSENSTEIN, N., Rome at War Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic, The Universityof North Carolina Press, London.
  • ROWLAND, R., “C. Gracchus and the Equites”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol.96, 1965, 361- 373.
  • SCULLARD, H.H., From Gracchi to Nero, A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68, Taylor & Francis e-Library, Routledge, New York, 2011.
  • SHERWIN-WHITE, A., The Roman Citizenship, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1973.
  • SHERWIN-WHITE, A. N., “The Date of the Lex Repetundarum and Its Consequences”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 62, 1972, 83-99
  • STEPHENSON, A., Public Lands and Agrarian Laws of the Roman Republic, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1891.
  • STOCKTON, D., The Gracchi, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1979.
  • ŞAHİN, O. G., “ ‘Lex Sempronia Tiberiana’: Tiberius Gracchus’un Toprak Reformu ve Toplumsal Kökenleri”, Anadolu Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 183-283.
  • TAŞDÖNER, K., Anadolu’da Roma Eyaletleri Augustus Dönemi, Bilge Kültür Sanat, İstanbul, 2017.
  • TOYNBEE, A. J., Hannibal's Legacy The Hannibalic War’s Effects on Roman Life, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, London, 1965.
  • UNGERN-STERNBERG, J. von, “The End of the Conflict of the Orders”, Social Struggles in Archaic Rome New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, (Edit K. Raaflaub), Oxford, 2005, s. 312-332.
  • WIRSZUBSKI, Ch, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome During the Late Republic and Early Principate, 2nd. Edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambrigde, 1968.
  • YEO, C. A., “The Founding and Function of Roman Colonies”, The Classical World, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1959, 104-130.
There are 105 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Roman History
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Okan Demir

Publication Date November 30, 2022
Submission Date April 29, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 14 Issue: 4

Cite

Chicago Demir, Okan. “GAİUS GRACCHUS’UN REFORM PROGRAMININ GENEL KARAKTERİ VE ROMA CUMHURİYETİ’NİN SOSYO-POLİTİK SINIRLARI”. History Studies 14, no. 4 (November 2022): 811-34.
 Download Cover Image