hufhsj Hacettepe University Faculty of Health Sciences Journal 2528-9918 Hacettepe University 10.21020/husbfd.1724192 Speech Pathology Konuşma Patolojisi Parents' Language Use and Interaction Styles During Interactive Play: A Gender Research https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9552-199X Noyan Erbaş Ayşın Hacettepe Üniversitesi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5112-8977 Karahan Tığrak Tuğçe HACETTEPE ÜNİVERSİTESİ https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0269-4563 Atila Çağlar Nazmiye YILDIRIM BEYAZIT ÜNİVERSİTESİ https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4496-5838 Daşbaşı Merve ANKARA MEDİPOL ÜNİVERSİTESİ 04 30 2026 13 1 252 267 06 23 2025 03 04 2026 Copyright © 2014, Hacettepe University Faculty of Health Sciences Journal 2014 Hacettepe University Faculty of Health Sciences Journal

Objectives: Studies suggest that parents may use different speech and play behaviors with daughters and sons. This study aimed to examine the interaction styles of Turkish-speaking parents with their 24–36-month-old daughters and sons and to explore gender-based differences in parent-child interactions.Materials and Methods: The study included 39 mothers and their children aged 24–36 months (17 girls, 22 boys). Demographic information was obtained using the Family Interview Form. Parents were asked to play with their children for 10 minutes using toys of their choice, as they would in daily life. Interactions were video-recorded and transcribed by two independent researchers. Parental utterances were analyzed, interaction styles were coded based on a predetermined scheme, and lexical diversity was measured. Gender-based differences were then examined.Results: A significant difference was found in the frequency of expressing opinions during play (p = 0.009), with parents expressing more opinions while interacting with daughters. Although parents showed higher lexical diversity (TTR) with daughters, the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.069). No significant differences were found in parental behaviors based on education level. Conclusion: Parents use different interaction styles with daughters and sons. More opinions were expressed during play with daughters, and a tendency toward greater lexical diversity was observed. These results suggest that parental language interactions may vary by child gender.

 Parental interaction lexical diversity interactive play gender 116 Austin, A. M. B., & Braeger, T. J. (1990). Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: Implications for the construction of a personal premise system. First Language, 10, 181–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/014272379001003001. Brundin, K., Rödholm, M., & Larsson, K. (1988). Vocal communication between parents and infants. Early Human Development, 16(1), 35–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3782(88)90085-0 Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676. Caldera, Y. M., Huston, A. C., & O'Brien, M. (1989). Social interactions and play patterns of parents and toddlers with feminine, masculine, and neutral toys. Child Development, 60, 70–76. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131072. Cervantes, C. A., & Callanan, M. A. (1998). Labels and explanations in mother-child emotion talk: Age and gender differentiation. Developmental Psychology, 34(1), 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.88. Chang, C.-J. (2000). Narrative performance across contexts and over time: Preschool Chinese children and mothers [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. Cherry, L., & Lewis, M. (1976). Mothers and two-year-olds: A study of sex differentiated aspects of verbal interaction. Developmental Psychology, 12, 278–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.12.4.278. Clearfield, M. W., & Nelson, N. M. (2006). Sex differences in mothers' speech and play behavior with 6-, 9-, and 14-month-old infants. Sex Roles, 54(1–2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-8874-1 Cohen, S., & Beckwith, L. (1976). Maternal language in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 12, 371–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.12.4.371. Crockenberg, S., & Litman, C. (1991). Effects of maternal employment on maternal and two-year-old child behavior. Child Development, 62, 930–953. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131144. Crowley, K., Callanan, M. A., Tenenbaum, H. R., & Allen, E. (2001). Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking. Psychological Science, 12(3), 258–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00347. DeLoache, J. S., & DeMendoza, O. A. P. (1987). Joint picture book interactions of mothers and one-year-old children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5, 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1987.tb01047.x. Detemple, J. M. (1994). Book reading styles of low-income mothers with preschoolers and children's later literacy skills [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. Endsley, R. C., Hutcherson, M. A., Garner, A. P., & Martin, M. (1979). Interrelationships among selected maternal behaviors, authoritarianism, and preschool children's verbal and nonverbal curiosity. Child Development, 50, 331–339. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129407. Fagot, B. I. (1978). The influence of sex of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development, 49, 459–465. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128711. Frankel, M. X., & Rollins, H. A., Jr. (1983). Does mother know best? Mothers and fathers interacting with preschool sons and daughters. Developmental Psychology, 19, 694–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.5.694. Gredler, M. E. (2012). Understanding Vygotsky for the classroom: Is it too late? Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 113-131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9183-6. Greenglass, E. R. (1971). A cross-cultural comparison of maternal communication. Child Development, 42(3), 685–692. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127440. Greif, E. B. (1980). Sex differences in parent-child conversations. Women's Studies International Quarterly, 3, 253–258. Gunnar, M. R., & Donahue, M. (1980). Sex differences in social responsiveness between six months and twelve months. Child Development, 51(1), 262–265. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129619. Halverson, C. E., & Waldrop, M. F. (1970). Maternal behavior toward own and other preschool children: The problem of "ownness." Child Development, 41, 839–845. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127229. Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74(5), 1368–1378. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00612. Huttenlocher, J., Waterfall, H., Vasilyeva, M., Vevea, J., & Hedges, L. V. (2010). Sources of variability in children’s language growth. Cognitive psychology, 61(4), 343-365. Jacob, R. S., John, S., Bellon-Harn, M. L., & Manchaiah, V. (2024). Exploring maternal interactions during shared book readings in Indian home contexts. Early Childhood Education Journal, 52(6), 1011–1022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-023-01487-7. Jacobs, B. S., & Moss, H. A. (1976). Birth order and sex of sibling as determinants of mother-infant interaction. Child Development, 47(2), 315–322. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128784. Kruper, J. C., & Užgiris, I. C. (1987). Fathers' and mothers' speech to young infants. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 16(6), 597–614. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067087. Laflamme, D., Pomerleau, A., & Malcuit, G. (2002). A comparison of fathers' and mothers' involvement in childcare and stimulation behaviors during free-play with their infants at 9 and 15 months. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 47(11-12), 507–518. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022069720776. Leaper, C., Anderson, K. J., & Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: a meta-analysis. Developmental psychology, 34(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.3. Lewis, M. (1972). State as an infant-environment interaction: An analysis of mother-infant interaction as a function of sex. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 18(2), 95–121. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23083965. Lu, Y. (2022). The use of interaction strategies in mother-child joint book reading for ages 3 to 6 in China. Creative Education, 13(9), 3081–3098. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2022.139194. MacDonald, K., & Parke, R. D. (1984). Bridging the Gap: Parent-Child Play Interaction and Peer Interactive Competence. Child Development, 55(4), 1265–1277. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129996. Minton, C., Kagan, J., & Levine, J. A. (1971). Maternal control and obedience in the two-year-old. Child Development, 42(6), 1873–1894. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127592. Mullis, R. L., Murray, L. W., & Mullis, A. K. (1990). Parent-child problem solving in dyads and triads. Child Study Journal, 20, 263–278. Noller, P. (1978). Sex differences in the socialization of affectionate expression. Developmental Psychology, 14(3), 317–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.14.3.317. Richards, B. J., & Malvern, D. D. (1997). Quantifying lexical diversity in the study of language development. University of Reading, Faculty of Education and Community Studies. Rowe, M. L. (2012). A longitudinal investigation of the role of quantity and quality of child-directed speech in vocabulary development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762–1774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01805.x. Schaffer, H. R., & Crook, C. K. (1979). Maternal control techniques in a directed play situation. Child Development, 50(4), 989–996. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129324. Stoneman, Z., & Brody, G. H. (1981). Two’s Company, Three Makes a Difference: An Examination of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Speech to Their Young Children. Child Development, 52(2), 705–707. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129193. Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2003). Parent-child conversations about science: The socialization of gender inequities? Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.34. Vygotsky, L. (2011). Interaction between learning and development (pp. 79–91). Linköping, Sweden: Linköpings universitet. Weinraub, M., & Frankel, J. (1977). Sex Differences in Parent-Infant Interaction during Free Play, Departure, and Separation. Child Development, 48(4), 1240–1249. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128481.