Research Article
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Morphologic Features of Kapıdağ Peninsula and its Coasts (NW-Turkey) using by Remote Sensing and DTM

Year 2014, Volume: 1 Issue: 1, 48 - 63, 10.11.2014
https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.300739

Abstract

Although it is an inland sea, the Sea of Marmara and
its surroundings have rather complex morphology due to the active tectonics of
the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) zone in this region. The Kapıdağ Peninsula
which is located at its southern coasts also represents a complex morphology.
Macro morphologic units of Kapıdağ Peninsula are N-S trending deep valley
systems, mountain areas and Belkıs isthmus. The most coastal area of peninsula
has terraces, coastal plains and alluvial valley floors. These unique
morphologic features can explain some parameters of active tectonics of the Sea
of Marmara region. In order to investigate these geomorphologic features of the
Kapıdağ peninsula in detail, some land observations, satellite data, Digital
Terrain Models (DTMs which have been evaluated from topographic maps with a
vertical precision of ±3m and cell size of 8m), Geographic Information Systems
(GIS), traditional methods and some integrated techniques such as image
processing were used.

References

  • Adediran, A.O., Parcharidis, I., Poscolieri, M., Pavlopoulos, K. Computer assisted discrimination of morphological units on north central Crete (Greece) by applying multivariate statistics to local relief gradients. Geomorphology, 2004, 58, 357-370.
  • Aksoy, R. Marmara Adası ve Kapıdağ Yarımadası’nın Stratigrafisi (Stratigraphy of Marmara Island and Kapıdag Peninsula). Türkiye Petrol Jeologları Derneği Bülteni, 1995, 7(1), 3-49.
  • Aksu, AE., Calon, TJ. And Hicott, RN. Anatomy of the North Anatolian Fault Zone in the Marmara Sea, western Turkey: extensional basins above a continental transform. GSA Today, 2000, 10(6): 3–7.
  • Alpar, B., Yaltırak, C. Characteristic features of the North Anatolian Fault in the eastern Marmara region and its tectonic evolution. Marine Geology, 2002.. 190, 329–350.
  • Ardel, A., Inadık, H. Kapıdağ Yarımadası Berzahı (Belkıs Tombolosu). İstanbul Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1957, 4(8), 65-66.
  • Armijo, R., Meyer, B., Hubert, A., Barka, A. Westward propagation of the North Anatolian Fault into the northern Aegean: timing and kinematics. Geology, 1999, 27, 267–270.
  • Armijo, R., Meyer, B., Navarro, S., King, G., Barka, A. Asymmetric slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara pull-apart: a clue to propagation processes of North Anatolian Fault? Terra Nova, 2003, 14(2), 80-86.
  • Barka A. and Rellinger, R., Active tectonics of the eastern Mediterranean region: deduced from GPS, neotectonic and seismicity data. Ann Geofisica 1997, 11:587-610.
  • Barka, A., Kadinsky-Cade, K. Strike-slip fault geometry in Turkey and its influence on earthquake activity. Tectonics, 1988, 7, 663–684.
  • Bishop, M.P., Shroder, J.F., Colby, J.D. Remote Sensing and geomorphometry for studying relief production in high mountains. Geomorphometry, 2003, 55, 345-361.
  • Bocco, G., Mendoza, M., Velazquez, A. Remote Sensing and GIS- based regional geomorphological mapping- a tool for landuse planning in developing countries. Geomorphology, 2001, 39, 211-219.
  • Crampin S., Evans, R. Neotectonics of the Marmara Sea region of Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 1986. 143, 343–348.
  • Ergün, M., Özel, E., Structural relationship between the Sea of Marmara basin and the North Anatolian Fault. Terra Nova, 1995, 7, :278–288.
  • Erol, O. Neotectonic and Geomorphologic Evolution of Turkey. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 1981, 40, 193-211.
  • Erol, O. Türkiye Jeomorfoloji Haritası (1:2,000,000). MTA Enstitüsü Yayınları, 1982, Ankara.
  • Ertin, G. Kapıdağ Yarımadasının coğrafi etüdü. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1994, 2: 283-314.
  • Franklin, S.E. Geomorphometric processing of digital elevation models. Computers and Geosciences, 1987, 13(6), 603-609.
  • Gazioğlu, C. Investigation of Geomorphology of Marmara Sea Bottom and surrounding area by Geomatic. Istanbul University, Institute of Marine Sciences and Management PhD. Thesis (No: 97), 2001, p.121.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Burak, Z.S., Alpar, B., Türker, A., Barut, F.I. Foreseeable impacts of the sea-level rise on the Southern coasts of the Marmara Sea (Turkey), Water Policy, 2010, 12, 932-943.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Gökaşan, E., Algan, O., Yücel, Z.Y., Tok, B., Doğan, E. Morphologic features of the Marmara Sea from multi-beam data. Marine Geology, 2002, 190, 397-420.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Yücel, Z.Y., Doğan, E. Morphological Features of Major Submarine Landslides by multi beam data. Journal of Coastal Research, 2004, 21(4), 664-673.
  • Gökaşan, E., Gazioğlu, C., Alpar, B., Yücel, Z.Y., Ersoy, Ş., Gündoğdu, O., Yaltirak, C. AND Tok, B. Evidence of NW extension of the North Anatolian Fault Zone in the Marmara Sea: a new interpretation of the Marmara Sea (Izmit) Earthquake on 17th August 1999. Geo Marine Letters, 2002, 21, 183-199.
  • Gökaşan, E., Ustaömer, T., Gazioğlu, C., Yücel, Z.Y., Öztürk, K., Tur, H., Ecevitoğlu, B., Tok. B. Morpho-tectonic evolution of the Marmara Sea inferred from multi-beam bathymetric and seismic data. Geo-Marine Letters, 2003, 23 (1), 19-33.
  • Görür, N., Çağatay, N., Sakınç, M., Sümengen, M., Şentürk, K., Yaltirak, C., Tchepalyga, A. Origin of the Sea of Marmara as deduced from Neogene to Quaternary Paleogeograophic Evolution of its Frame, International Geology Rewiev, V.H. Winston and Son Inc. 1997, 39, 342-352.
  • Güneysu, C. Kapıdağ Yarımadası Kıyılarının (Güney Marmara) Jeomorfolojisi. Istanbul University, Project of Research Foundation, Number: 1073/031297, 1999.
  • Imren, C., Le Pichon, X., Rangin, C., Demirbağ, E., Ecevitoğlu, B., Görür, N. The North Anatolian Fault within the Sea of Marmara: a new evaluation based on multichannel seismic and multi-beam data. Earth Planet Science Letters, 2001, 186, 143–158.
  • Jansen, J.R. Introductory Digital Image Processing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
  • Karacık, Z., Yılmaz, Y., Pearce, J.A. and Ece, Ö.I. Petrochemistry of the South Marmara granitoids, northewest Anatolia, Turkey, Int. J. earh Sci. (Geol Rundsch), 2008, 97:1181-1200
  • Ketin, I. Relations between general tectonic features and the main earthquake regions in Turkey. MTA Bulletin, 1968, 71, 129–134.
  • Ketin, İ. Über die tektonisch-mechanischen Folgerungen aus der grossen anatolischen Erdbeben des letzten Dezenniums. Geologische Rundschau, 1948, 36, 77–83.
  • Kuşcu, İ., Okamura, M., Matsuoka, H., Awata, Y. Active faults in the Gulf of Izmit on the North Anatolian Fault, NW Turkey: a high resolution shallow seismic study. Marine Geology, 2002, 190: 421–433.
  • Le Pichon, X., Şengör, AMC., Demirbağ, E., Rangin C., Imren, C., Armijo, R., Görür, N., Çağatay, N., Mercier De Lepinay, B., Meyer, B., Saatçiler, R., Tok B. The active main Marmara Fault. Earth Planet Science Letters, 2001, 192, 595–616
  • Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation 3rd Edition. Wiley Pub., 1994, p. 750.
  • Mayer, L. Application of digital Terrain Models to macroscale tectonic geomorphology. Geomorphology and Global Tectonics (Summerfield, M.A.), J. Wiley Pub., 2000, pp. 15-27.
  • McCullagh, M.J. Quality, Use and Visualization in Terrain Modeling. Landform Monitoring, modeling and Analysis (Eds.: Lane, S.N., Richards, K.S. and Chandler, J.H. ) Wiley Pub. 2000, pp.95-139.
  • Moore, I.D., Grayson, R.G. Landson, A.R. Digital Terrain Modeling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological and biological applications. Hydrological Processes, 1991, 5. pp. 3-30.
  • Musial, W.W., Lewisnski, ST., Zagajewski, B. Geomorphological Map (Tykocin Sheet). Methodology. Observing our Env. From Space: New solution for a new millennium (Ed. Gérard Bégni), 2002, ISBN 90 5809 254 2. 385-390p.
  • Novak, I.D., Soulakellis, N. Identifying Geomorphic Features using LANDSAT 5TM data processing techniques on Lesvos, Greece. Geomorphology, 2000, 34, 101-109.
  • Okay, A., Demirbağ, E., Kurt, H., Okay, N. Kuşçu, İ. An active, deep marine strike-slip basin along the North Anatolian fault in Turkey. Tectonics, 1999, 18(1), 129–147
  • Okay, A., Kaşlilar–Özcan, A., Imren, C.,, Boztepe–Güney, A., Demirbağ, E., Kuşçu, İ.. Active faults and evolving strike-slip basins in the Marmara Sea, northwest Turkey: a multichannel seismic reflection study. Tectonophysics, 2000, 321, 189–21.
  • Örgülü, G., Aktar, M., Regional moment tensor inversion for strong aftershocks of the August 17, 1999, İzmit Earthquake (Mw=7.4), Geophysical Research Letters., 2001, 28(2), 371-374.
  • Pınar, N. Géologie et météorologe sismiques du bassin de la mer de Marmara. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Fen Fakültesi Mecmuası, 1942, VII(3/4), 121–182.
  • Şengör, AMC. The North Anatolian Transform Fault; its age offset and tectonic significance. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 1979, 136, 269–282.
  • Şengör, AMC., Görür, N., Şaroğlu, F. Strike-slip faulting and related basin formation in zones of tectonic escape: Turkey a case study. Strike-slip Deformation, basin Formation, and Sedimentation (Eds: Biddle, K.T. and Christie-Blick, N.) Soc. Econ. Paleont. Min. Spec. Pub. 1985, 37 (in honor of J.C. Crowell), 227-264.
  • Smith AD, Taymaz T, Oktay F, Yüce H, Alpar B, Başaran H, Jackson J.A, Kar S., Şimşek M. High–resolution seismic profiling in the Sea of Marmara (northwest Turkey): Late Quaternary sedimentation and sea-level changes. Geology Society of American Bulletin, 1995, 107, 923–936.
  • Straub, C., Recent crustal deformation and strain accumulation in the Marmara Sea region, NW Anatolia, inferred from GPS measurements, PhD. Thesis, Institut für Geodesie und Photogrammetrie, Mitteilungen Nr. 58, Zürich, 1996.
  • Thompson JA, Bell JC., Butler CA. Digital elevation model resolution: effects on terrain attribute calculation and quantitative soil-landscape modeling, Geoderma, 2001, 100 (1-2), 67-89.
  • Ventura, S.J., Irwin, B.J. Automated landform classification methods for soil landscape studies. Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications (Eds:. Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C.) Wiley, New York, 2000, pp. 267-290.
  • Walsh, S.J., Butler, D.R, Malanson, G.P. An overview of scale, pattern, process relationship in geomorphology: a remote sensing and GIS perspective. Geomorphology, 1998, 21, 183-205.
  • Welch, R Usery, L.E. Cartographic Accuracy of Landsat MSS and TM Image Data, IEEE, Transaction on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1984, GE-22, 3.
  • Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C. Digital Terrain Analysis. Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications (Eds:. Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C.) Wiley, New York, 2000, pp. Wiley, New York, 1-27.
Year 2014, Volume: 1 Issue: 1, 48 - 63, 10.11.2014
https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.300739

Abstract

References

  • Adediran, A.O., Parcharidis, I., Poscolieri, M., Pavlopoulos, K. Computer assisted discrimination of morphological units on north central Crete (Greece) by applying multivariate statistics to local relief gradients. Geomorphology, 2004, 58, 357-370.
  • Aksoy, R. Marmara Adası ve Kapıdağ Yarımadası’nın Stratigrafisi (Stratigraphy of Marmara Island and Kapıdag Peninsula). Türkiye Petrol Jeologları Derneği Bülteni, 1995, 7(1), 3-49.
  • Aksu, AE., Calon, TJ. And Hicott, RN. Anatomy of the North Anatolian Fault Zone in the Marmara Sea, western Turkey: extensional basins above a continental transform. GSA Today, 2000, 10(6): 3–7.
  • Alpar, B., Yaltırak, C. Characteristic features of the North Anatolian Fault in the eastern Marmara region and its tectonic evolution. Marine Geology, 2002.. 190, 329–350.
  • Ardel, A., Inadık, H. Kapıdağ Yarımadası Berzahı (Belkıs Tombolosu). İstanbul Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1957, 4(8), 65-66.
  • Armijo, R., Meyer, B., Hubert, A., Barka, A. Westward propagation of the North Anatolian Fault into the northern Aegean: timing and kinematics. Geology, 1999, 27, 267–270.
  • Armijo, R., Meyer, B., Navarro, S., King, G., Barka, A. Asymmetric slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara pull-apart: a clue to propagation processes of North Anatolian Fault? Terra Nova, 2003, 14(2), 80-86.
  • Barka A. and Rellinger, R., Active tectonics of the eastern Mediterranean region: deduced from GPS, neotectonic and seismicity data. Ann Geofisica 1997, 11:587-610.
  • Barka, A., Kadinsky-Cade, K. Strike-slip fault geometry in Turkey and its influence on earthquake activity. Tectonics, 1988, 7, 663–684.
  • Bishop, M.P., Shroder, J.F., Colby, J.D. Remote Sensing and geomorphometry for studying relief production in high mountains. Geomorphometry, 2003, 55, 345-361.
  • Bocco, G., Mendoza, M., Velazquez, A. Remote Sensing and GIS- based regional geomorphological mapping- a tool for landuse planning in developing countries. Geomorphology, 2001, 39, 211-219.
  • Crampin S., Evans, R. Neotectonics of the Marmara Sea region of Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 1986. 143, 343–348.
  • Ergün, M., Özel, E., Structural relationship between the Sea of Marmara basin and the North Anatolian Fault. Terra Nova, 1995, 7, :278–288.
  • Erol, O. Neotectonic and Geomorphologic Evolution of Turkey. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 1981, 40, 193-211.
  • Erol, O. Türkiye Jeomorfoloji Haritası (1:2,000,000). MTA Enstitüsü Yayınları, 1982, Ankara.
  • Ertin, G. Kapıdağ Yarımadasının coğrafi etüdü. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1994, 2: 283-314.
  • Franklin, S.E. Geomorphometric processing of digital elevation models. Computers and Geosciences, 1987, 13(6), 603-609.
  • Gazioğlu, C. Investigation of Geomorphology of Marmara Sea Bottom and surrounding area by Geomatic. Istanbul University, Institute of Marine Sciences and Management PhD. Thesis (No: 97), 2001, p.121.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Burak, Z.S., Alpar, B., Türker, A., Barut, F.I. Foreseeable impacts of the sea-level rise on the Southern coasts of the Marmara Sea (Turkey), Water Policy, 2010, 12, 932-943.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Gökaşan, E., Algan, O., Yücel, Z.Y., Tok, B., Doğan, E. Morphologic features of the Marmara Sea from multi-beam data. Marine Geology, 2002, 190, 397-420.
  • Gazioğlu, C., Yücel, Z.Y., Doğan, E. Morphological Features of Major Submarine Landslides by multi beam data. Journal of Coastal Research, 2004, 21(4), 664-673.
  • Gökaşan, E., Gazioğlu, C., Alpar, B., Yücel, Z.Y., Ersoy, Ş., Gündoğdu, O., Yaltirak, C. AND Tok, B. Evidence of NW extension of the North Anatolian Fault Zone in the Marmara Sea: a new interpretation of the Marmara Sea (Izmit) Earthquake on 17th August 1999. Geo Marine Letters, 2002, 21, 183-199.
  • Gökaşan, E., Ustaömer, T., Gazioğlu, C., Yücel, Z.Y., Öztürk, K., Tur, H., Ecevitoğlu, B., Tok. B. Morpho-tectonic evolution of the Marmara Sea inferred from multi-beam bathymetric and seismic data. Geo-Marine Letters, 2003, 23 (1), 19-33.
  • Görür, N., Çağatay, N., Sakınç, M., Sümengen, M., Şentürk, K., Yaltirak, C., Tchepalyga, A. Origin of the Sea of Marmara as deduced from Neogene to Quaternary Paleogeograophic Evolution of its Frame, International Geology Rewiev, V.H. Winston and Son Inc. 1997, 39, 342-352.
  • Güneysu, C. Kapıdağ Yarımadası Kıyılarının (Güney Marmara) Jeomorfolojisi. Istanbul University, Project of Research Foundation, Number: 1073/031297, 1999.
  • Imren, C., Le Pichon, X., Rangin, C., Demirbağ, E., Ecevitoğlu, B., Görür, N. The North Anatolian Fault within the Sea of Marmara: a new evaluation based on multichannel seismic and multi-beam data. Earth Planet Science Letters, 2001, 186, 143–158.
  • Jansen, J.R. Introductory Digital Image Processing. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
  • Karacık, Z., Yılmaz, Y., Pearce, J.A. and Ece, Ö.I. Petrochemistry of the South Marmara granitoids, northewest Anatolia, Turkey, Int. J. earh Sci. (Geol Rundsch), 2008, 97:1181-1200
  • Ketin, I. Relations between general tectonic features and the main earthquake regions in Turkey. MTA Bulletin, 1968, 71, 129–134.
  • Ketin, İ. Über die tektonisch-mechanischen Folgerungen aus der grossen anatolischen Erdbeben des letzten Dezenniums. Geologische Rundschau, 1948, 36, 77–83.
  • Kuşcu, İ., Okamura, M., Matsuoka, H., Awata, Y. Active faults in the Gulf of Izmit on the North Anatolian Fault, NW Turkey: a high resolution shallow seismic study. Marine Geology, 2002, 190: 421–433.
  • Le Pichon, X., Şengör, AMC., Demirbağ, E., Rangin C., Imren, C., Armijo, R., Görür, N., Çağatay, N., Mercier De Lepinay, B., Meyer, B., Saatçiler, R., Tok B. The active main Marmara Fault. Earth Planet Science Letters, 2001, 192, 595–616
  • Lillesand, T.M., Kiefer, R.W. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation 3rd Edition. Wiley Pub., 1994, p. 750.
  • Mayer, L. Application of digital Terrain Models to macroscale tectonic geomorphology. Geomorphology and Global Tectonics (Summerfield, M.A.), J. Wiley Pub., 2000, pp. 15-27.
  • McCullagh, M.J. Quality, Use and Visualization in Terrain Modeling. Landform Monitoring, modeling and Analysis (Eds.: Lane, S.N., Richards, K.S. and Chandler, J.H. ) Wiley Pub. 2000, pp.95-139.
  • Moore, I.D., Grayson, R.G. Landson, A.R. Digital Terrain Modeling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological and biological applications. Hydrological Processes, 1991, 5. pp. 3-30.
  • Musial, W.W., Lewisnski, ST., Zagajewski, B. Geomorphological Map (Tykocin Sheet). Methodology. Observing our Env. From Space: New solution for a new millennium (Ed. Gérard Bégni), 2002, ISBN 90 5809 254 2. 385-390p.
  • Novak, I.D., Soulakellis, N. Identifying Geomorphic Features using LANDSAT 5TM data processing techniques on Lesvos, Greece. Geomorphology, 2000, 34, 101-109.
  • Okay, A., Demirbağ, E., Kurt, H., Okay, N. Kuşçu, İ. An active, deep marine strike-slip basin along the North Anatolian fault in Turkey. Tectonics, 1999, 18(1), 129–147
  • Okay, A., Kaşlilar–Özcan, A., Imren, C.,, Boztepe–Güney, A., Demirbağ, E., Kuşçu, İ.. Active faults and evolving strike-slip basins in the Marmara Sea, northwest Turkey: a multichannel seismic reflection study. Tectonophysics, 2000, 321, 189–21.
  • Örgülü, G., Aktar, M., Regional moment tensor inversion for strong aftershocks of the August 17, 1999, İzmit Earthquake (Mw=7.4), Geophysical Research Letters., 2001, 28(2), 371-374.
  • Pınar, N. Géologie et météorologe sismiques du bassin de la mer de Marmara. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Fen Fakültesi Mecmuası, 1942, VII(3/4), 121–182.
  • Şengör, AMC. The North Anatolian Transform Fault; its age offset and tectonic significance. Journal of the Geological Society (London), 1979, 136, 269–282.
  • Şengör, AMC., Görür, N., Şaroğlu, F. Strike-slip faulting and related basin formation in zones of tectonic escape: Turkey a case study. Strike-slip Deformation, basin Formation, and Sedimentation (Eds: Biddle, K.T. and Christie-Blick, N.) Soc. Econ. Paleont. Min. Spec. Pub. 1985, 37 (in honor of J.C. Crowell), 227-264.
  • Smith AD, Taymaz T, Oktay F, Yüce H, Alpar B, Başaran H, Jackson J.A, Kar S., Şimşek M. High–resolution seismic profiling in the Sea of Marmara (northwest Turkey): Late Quaternary sedimentation and sea-level changes. Geology Society of American Bulletin, 1995, 107, 923–936.
  • Straub, C., Recent crustal deformation and strain accumulation in the Marmara Sea region, NW Anatolia, inferred from GPS measurements, PhD. Thesis, Institut für Geodesie und Photogrammetrie, Mitteilungen Nr. 58, Zürich, 1996.
  • Thompson JA, Bell JC., Butler CA. Digital elevation model resolution: effects on terrain attribute calculation and quantitative soil-landscape modeling, Geoderma, 2001, 100 (1-2), 67-89.
  • Ventura, S.J., Irwin, B.J. Automated landform classification methods for soil landscape studies. Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications (Eds:. Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C.) Wiley, New York, 2000, pp. 267-290.
  • Walsh, S.J., Butler, D.R, Malanson, G.P. An overview of scale, pattern, process relationship in geomorphology: a remote sensing and GIS perspective. Geomorphology, 1998, 21, 183-205.
  • Welch, R Usery, L.E. Cartographic Accuracy of Landsat MSS and TM Image Data, IEEE, Transaction on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1984, GE-22, 3.
  • Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C. Digital Terrain Analysis. Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications (Eds:. Wilson, J.P., Gallant, J.C.) Wiley, New York, 2000, pp. Wiley, New York, 1-27.
There are 51 citations in total.

Details

Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Cem Gazioğlu

Bedri Aipar

Zeki Yaşar Yücel

Ahmet Edip Müftüoğlu This is me

Cem Güneysu This is me

T. Ahmet Ertek

Volkan Demir This is me

Hakan Kaya

Publication Date November 10, 2014
Published in Issue Year 2014 Volume: 1 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Gazioğlu, C., Aipar, B., Yücel, Z. Y., Müftüoğlu, A. E., et al. (2014). Morphologic Features of Kapıdağ Peninsula and its Coasts (NW-Turkey) using by Remote Sensing and DTM. International Journal of Environment and Geoinformatics, 1(1), 48-63. https://doi.org/10.30897/ijegeo.300739