Environmental Degradation, Strategy and Competition in the Arctic Region: An Assessment in the Context of Environmental Security

Year 2021, Volume: 3 Issue: 1 (Arktik Özel Sayısı), 180 - 217, 19.04.2021

İsmail Utku Cantürk , Senem Atvur

Abstract

Facing the rapid environmental destruction caused by the global environmental crisis, the Arctic has been exposed to structural changes throughout 21st century. Caused by global climate change, the gradual decrease in permanent glacial layer is opening the doors for a future that will transform the Arctic into a hub for overseas transportation whilst relatively facilitating the access to hydrocarbon reserves in the region. In an effort to evaluate the opportunities in the changing regional geopolitics in the form of national interests, Arctic actors have engaged in a regional competition. Such competition is deepening the environmental degradation in the Arctic region; due to the deterioration of the Arctic environment the global environmental crisis becomes even more devastating. This work explains the environmental degradation in the Arctic and the competition over region’s potential hydrocarbon resources and maritime trade routes through the four prominent Arctic actors, which are USA, Canada, Russia and China; the work aims to reveal the effects of this competition over regional and global environmental security.

Keywords

Arctic, Hydrocarbon Reserves, Trade Routes, Climate Change

Arktik Bölgede Çevresel Bozulma, Strateji ve Rekabet: Çevresel Güvenlik Bağlamında Bir Değerlendirme

Abstract

Küresel çevre krizinin yıkıcı etkileri sonucunda hızlı bir çevresel bozulmayla yüzleşen Arktik, 21. yüzyılda yapısal değişikliklere maruz kalmaktadır. Küresel iklim değişikliği sonucu kalıcı buzul tabakasındaki kademeli azalma Arktik’i denizaşırı taşımacılık için bir merkez haline getirecek bir geleceğin kapılarını aralarken, bölgedeki hidrokarbon rezervlerine ulaşımı da nispeten kolaylaştırmaktadır. Değişen bölge jeopolitiğindeki fırsatları ulusal çıkarları çerçevesinde değerlendirmek isteyen Arktik aktörleri bölgesel bir rekabete girmektedir. Bu rekabet Arktik bölgedeki çevresel bozulmayı derinleştirmektedir; Arktik çevresinin bozulması ise küresel çevre krizini daha da yıkıcı hale getirmektedir. Arktik’teki çevresel bozulmayı açıklayıp potansiyel hidrokarbon rezervleri ve ticaret yolları üzerindeki rekabeti öne çıkan dört Arktik aktörü olan ABD, Kanada, Rusya ve Çin üzerinden ele alan bu çalışma, söz konusu rekabetin bölgesel ve küresel çapta çevresel güvenliğe etkisini ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır.

Keywords

Arktik, Hidrokarbon Rezervleri, Ticaret Yolları, İklim Değişikliği

References

• Arctic Council. “About”. Arctic Council. https://arctic-council.org/en/about/ (16.10.2020).
• Arctic Council. “China and its Arctic Trajectories: The Arctic Institute’s China Series 2020”. Arctic Council, 2020. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/china-arctic-trajectories-the-arctic-institute-china-series-202 0/#:~:text=Since%202007%2C%20it%20has%20taken,Polar%20Waters%20(Polar%20Code). (14.12.2020).
• Arctic Council. “First Arctic Shipping Status Report From PAME Working Group Highlights Increase in Arctic Shipping Traffic”. The Arctic Council, 2020. https://arctic-council.org/en/news/first-arctic-shipping-status-report-increase-shipping-traffic/ (03.11.2020).
• Arctic Council. “The Arctic Council Signs Memorandum of Understanding With Arctic Economic Council”. Arctic Council, 2019. https://arctic-council.org/en/news/the-arctic-council-signs-memorandum-of-understanding-wit h-arctic-economic-council/ (16.10.2020).
• Arctic Council. “The United States”. Arctic Council. https://arctic-council.org/en/about/states/the-united-states/#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20has%20s erved%20as,Search%20and%20Rescue%20in%20the (14.12.2020).
• Arctic Council. “Who is the Arctic Council?”. Arctic Council. https://arctic-council.org/en/ (03.11.2020).
• Atvur, Senem ve İ. Utku Cantürk. “Çevre Sorunları ve Uluslararası Güvenlik Gündeminde Çevresel Tehditler”. Uluslararası Güvenlik. Gelenekselden Güncele Bir Gündem Analizi içinde, Editör: Emre Çıtak ve Sami Kiraz, 249-282. Ankara: Orion Kitabevi, 2020.
• Barnett, Jon, “Environmental Security”, Contemporary Security Studies içinde, ed. Alan Collins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 189-207.
• BBC News. “Obama bans new oil drilling in Arctic Ocean”. BBC News, 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38034518 (03.11.2020).
• Berkman, Paul Arthur . “Preventing an Arctic Cold War”. The New York Times, 2013. http://www.martinbreum.dk/artikler/Preventing%20an%20Arctic%20Cold%20War.pdf (20.11.2020).
• Burke, Danita Catherine. “Why the new Arctic ‘Cold War’ is a dangerous myth”. The Conversation, 2018. https://theconversation.com/why-the-new-arctic-cold-war-is-a-dangerous-myth-108274 (20.11.2020).
• Canadian Coast Guard. “Icebreaking fleet of the Canadian Coast Guard”. Canadian Coast Guard, 2019. https://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/icebreaking-deglacage/fleet-flotte-eng.html (19.10.2020).
• Cassella, Cary. “Arctic Sea Ice Could Be Gone by 2035, According to Earth’s Climate History”. Science Alert, 2020. https://www.sciencealert.com/the-arctic-could-be-free-of-sea-ice-next-decade-if-it-warms-the- same-as-last-time (24.11.2020).
• Climate Action Tracker. “Country summary: Canada”. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/canada/ (24.11.2020).
• Climate Action Tracker. “Country summary: China”. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/china/ (24.11.2020).
• Climate Action Tracker. “Country summary: USA”. Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/usa/#:~:text=The%20ambitious%20plan%20outline s%20concrete,battery%20storage%20and%20green%20hydrogen. (24.11.2020).
• Climate Action Tracker. “Russia’s new 2030 target will not deliver real-world climate action”. Climate Action Tracker, 2020. https://climateactiontracker.org/climate-target-update-tracker/russias-new-2030-target-will-not -deliver-real-world-climate-action/ (24.11.2020).
• Davenport, Coral. “Trump’s Order to Open Arctic Waters to Oil Drilling Was Unlawful, Federal Judge Finds”. The New York Times, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/30/climate/trump-oil-drilling-arctic.html (03.11.2020).
• Dean, Joshua. “Arctic climate change – it’s recent carbon emissions we should fear, not ancient methane ‘time bombs’”. The Conversation, 2020. https://theconversation.com/arctic-climate-change-its-recent-carbon-emissions-we-should-fear-not-anc ient-methane-time-bombs-135270 (24.11.2020).
• Dennis, Brady ve Dino Grandoni. “In reversal, Trump to ban oil drilling off coasts of Florida, Georgia and South Carolina”. The Washington Post, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2020/09/08/reversal-trump-ban-oil-dri lling-off-coasts-florida-georgia-south-carolina/ (03.11.2020).
• Descamps, Maud. “The Ice Silk Road: Is China a “Near-Arctic-State”?”. Institute for Security & Development Policy, 2019. https://isdp.eu/publication/the-ice-silk-road-is-china-a-near-artic-state/ (20.10.2020).
• Devyatkin, Pavel . “Russia’s Arctic Strategy: Energy Extraction (Part III)”. The Arctic Institute, 2018. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/russias-arctic-strategy-energy-extraction-part-three/ (20.10.2020).
• Devyatkin, Pavel . “Russia’s Arctic Strategy: Military and Security (Part II)”. The Arctic Institute, 2018. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/russias-arctic-military-and-security-part-two/ (20.10.2020).
• Dillow, Clay. “Russia and China vie to beat the US in the trillion-dollar race to control the Arctic”. CNBC, 2018. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/06/russia-and-china-battle-us-in-race-to-control-arctic.html (20.11.2020).
• Djoghlaf, Ahmed. “Climate Change and Biodiversity in Polar Regions”. Sustainable Development Law & Policy 8, sy. 3 (2008): 14-16.
• Dolata, Petra . “How ‘Green’ is Canada’s Arctic Policy? The Role of the Environment and Environmental Security in the Arctic”. Zeitschrift für Kanada-Studien 32, sy. 2 (2012): 65-83.
• Dolata-Kreutzkamp, Petra. ““The Arctic ıs Ours”: Canada’s Arctic Policy – Between Sovereignty and Climate Change”. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Fokus Kanada 2 (2009): 1-6.
• Dünya Doğayı Koruma Vakfı (World Wildlife Fund-WWF). “Arctic Climate Change”. World Wildlife Fund (WWF). https://arcticwwf.org/work/climate/#:~:text=Without%20urgent%20action%20to%20cut,stock s%2C%20birds%20and%20marine%20mammals. (03.11.2020).
• Eguíluz, Victor M., Juan Fernández-Gracia, Xabier Irigoien ve Carlos M. Duarte. “A quantitative assessment of Arctic shipping in 2010-2014”. Scientific Reports 6, 30682 (2016): 1-6.
• Elliot L. Richardson. “Foreword”. United States Arctic Interests. The 1980s and 1990s içinde, Editör: William E. Westermeyer ve Kurt M. Shusterich, v-ix. New York: Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 1984.
• European Bank. “Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)”. European Bank. https://www.ebrd.com/what-we-do/belt-and-road/overview.html#:~:text=The%20programme %20is%20expected%20to,geographical%20scope%20is%20constantly%20expanding. (20.10.2020).
• Government of Canada. “Canada and the circumpolar Arctic”. Government of Canada. https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/international_relations-relations_internationales /arctic-arctique/index.aspx?lang=eng (16.10.2020).
• Government of Canada. “Canada is taking action to protect and conserve the environment, address climate change and conserve nature”. Government of Canada, 2017. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/news/2017/06/canada_is_takingaction toprotectandconservetheenvironmentaddressc.html (16.11.2020).
• Government of Canada. “Pricing carbon pollution from industry”. Government of Canada, 2019. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/pricing-pollut ion-how-it-will-work/industry/pricing-carbon-pollution.html (16.11.2020).
• Government of Canada. “Progress towards Canada’s greenhouse gas emissions reduction target”. Government of Canada, 2020. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/pro gress-towards-canada-greenhouse-gas-emissions-reduction-target.html (24.11.2020).
• Greenpeace. “Arctic Oil Drilling”. Greenpeace. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/arctic/issues/oil-drilling/ (03.11.2020).
• Gümrükçü, Harun, Ersoy, Güneş, “Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nin Ulusal Stratejisi İçinde Arktika Politikasının Yeri”, 21. Yüzyılda Asya-Pasifik içinde, ed. S. Özer, S. Atvur, R. İzol (Ankara: Seçkin, 2017), 409-437.
• Harbron, John D. “Icebreakers”. The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2015. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/icebreakers (19.10.2020).
• Heininen, Lassi, Alexander Sergunin ve Gleb Yarovoy. “Russian Strategies in the Arctic: Avoiding a New Cold War”. Rapor. Yayımlanmış Araştırma. Moskova: Valdai Discussion Club, 2014. https://www.sipri.org/commentary/essay/2020/russias-new-arctic-policy-document-signals-co ntinuity-rather-change#:~:text=On%206%20March%202020%2C%20Russian,for%20the%20 next%2015%20years. (20.10.2020).
• Huebert, Rob. “A new Cold War in the Arctic?! The old one never ended!”. Arctic Yearbook, 2019. https://arcticyearbook.com/arctic-yearbook/2019/2019-commentaries/325-a-new-cold-war-in- the-arctic-the-old-one-never-ended (20.11.2020).
• International Association of Classification Societies. “Requirements concerning POLAR CLASS”. Rapor. Yayımlanmış Araştırma. (Londra: International Association of Classification Societies, 2016): I1-1-I1-2.
• International Institute of Strategic Studies (IISS). “Understanding China’s Arctic activities”. IISS, 2020. https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2020/02/china-arctic#:~:text=Investing%20in%20Arctic% 20nations,image%20as%20a%20major%20power. (14.12.2020).
• IPCC. “Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”. Rapor. Yayımlanmış Araştırma. (Cenevre: IPCC, 2014): 4, 12.
• Kankaanpää, Paula ve Oran R. Young. “The effectiveness of the Arctic Council”. Polar Research 31, sy. 1 (2012): 1-14.
• Käpylä, Juha ve Harri Mikkola. “Arctic Conflict Potential. Towards An Extra-Arctic Perspective”. FIIA Briefing Paper 138, sy. Eylül (2013): 1-9.
• Klare, Michael T., “Rushing for the Arctic’s Riches”, The New York Times, 07.12.2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/08/opinion/sunday/rushing-for-the-arctics-riches.html (10.12.2020).
• Klimenko, Ekaterina. “Russia’s new Arctic policy document signals continuity rather than change”. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2020. https://www.sipri.org/commentary/essay/2020/russias-new-arctic-policy-document-signals-continuity-rather-change#:~:text=Russia's%20new%20Arctic%20policy%20document%20signals%20continuity%20rather%20than%20change,-Russian%20Arctic%20icebreaker&text=On%206%20March%202020%2C%20Russian,'%20(Basic%20Principles%202035). (28.12.2020).
• Konyn, Carol . “Polar Bears Heading Extinction by 2100- Study”. Earth.org, 2020. https://earth.org/polar-bears-to-become-extinct-by-2100/ (24.11.2020).
• Kulp, Scott A. ve Benjamin H. Strauss, “New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding”, Nature Communications 10, sy. 4844 (2019): 1-12.
• Lanteigne, Marc. “The Twists and Turns of the Polar Silk Road”. Over the Circle, 2020. https://overthecircle.com/2020/03/15/the-twists-and-turns-of-the-polar-silk-road/ (20.10.2020).
• Larsen, Joan Nymand vd. “Polar regions”. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change içinde, Editör: V.R. Barros vd., 1567-1612. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
• Lasserre, Frédéric . “Arctic shipping routes. From the Panama myth to reality”. International Journal 66, sy. 4 (2011): 793-808.
• Lewis-Koskinen, Simone. “U.S. – Canada Dispute Over Offshore Territory”. ICE Case Studies 228, 2010. http://mandalaprojects.com/ice/ice-cases/beaucanus.htm#:~:text=The%20dispute%20originat ed%20in%20the,claims%20to%20an%20inaccessible%20region. (22.10.2020).
• Malley, Shaun . “Canada’s leadership of the Arctic Council – a look back”. CBC, 2015. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/canada-s-leadership-of-the-arctic-council-a-look-back- 1.3046225 (16.10.2020).
• Mambra, Shamseer. “The Complete Story of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill”. Marine Insight, 2019. https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-history/the-complete-story-of-the-exxon-valdez-oil- spill/#:~:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%20almost,killed%20in%20this%20deadliest%2 0accident. (03.11.2020).
• Marchenko, N. A., N. Andreassen, O. J. Borch, S. Yu Kuznetsova, V. Ingimundarson ve U. Jakobsen. “Arctic Shipping and Risks: Emergency Categories and Response Capacities”. TransNav. The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation 12, sy. 1 (2018): 107-114.
• Mayer, Maximilian. “China’s Rise as Eurasian Power: The Revival of the Silk Road and Its Consequences”. Rethinking the Silk Road: China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Emerging Eurasian Relations içinde, Editör: Maximillian Mayer, 1-42. Singapur: Springer Nature Singapore Pte. Ltd., 2018.
• Melia, Nathanael , Keith Haines ve Ed Hawkins. “Sea ice decline and 21st century trans-Arctic shipping routes”. Geophysical Research Letters 43, sy. 18 (2016): 9720-9728.
• Mizokami, Kyle . “The U.S.’s Icebreaker Fleet Is Finally Getting Some Much-Needed Attention”. Popular Mechanics, 2020. https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/navy-ships/a32841298/white-house-orders-revie w-of-us-icebreaker-fleet-capabilities/#:~:text=The%20U.S.'s%20icebreaker%20fleet%E2%80 %94never%20that%20large%20to%20begin,it%20hasn't%20sailed%20since. (15.10.2020).
• Muzik, Val ve Nina Joffe. “A Brief History of the Arctic Council – Infographic”. The Arctic Institute, 2020. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/brief-history-arctic-council-infographic/ (03.11.2020).
• National Intelligence Council (NIC). “Russia: Impact of Climate Change to 2030. A Commissioned Research Report”. Rapor. Yayımlanmış Araştırma. Washington: National Intelligence Council, 2009.
• New Internationalist. “The Arctic: A History”. New Internationalist, 2009. https://newint.org/features/2009/07/01/arctic-history#:~:text=The%20ancient%20Greeks%20 gave%20the,the%20Red%20colonized%20southern%20Greenland. (02.11.2020).
• Østreng, Willy. “The transportation passages of the Arctic Ocean and connecting corridors in southern waters”. Shipping in Arctic Waters. A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages içinde, Editör: Willy Østreng, Karl Magnus Eger, Brit Fløistad, Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl, Lars Lothe, Morten Mejlænder-Larsen ve Tor Wergeland, 11-46. Berlin ve Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2013.
• Pike, Lili. “China’s Summer of Floods is a Preview of Climate Disasters to Come”. Inside Climate News, 2020. https://insideclimatenews.org/news/14082020/china-floods-climate-change-extreme-weather (24.11.2020).
• Polar Discovery. “The Arctic: Exploration Timeline”. Polar Discovery, http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arctic/330.html (07.11.2020).
• Potenza, Alessandra. “Here’s what vanishing sea ice in the Arctic means for you”. The Verge, 2018. https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/10/17339046/arctic-sea-ice-decline-albedo-effect-climate-c hange-global-warming (03.11.2020).
• Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME). “The Polar Code”. Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME). https://www.pame.is/projects/arctic-marine-shipping/the-arctic-shipping-best-practices-inform ation-forum/the-polar-code (03.11.2020).
• Ramseyer, Kate. “2020 Arctic Sea Ice Minimum at Second Lowest on Record”. NASA Global Climate Change. Vital Signs of the Planet, 2020. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3023/2020-arctic-sea-ice-minimum-at-second-lowest-on-record (24.11.2020).
• Rosatom. “Nuclear Icebreaker Fleet”. Rosatom. https://rosatom.ru/en/rosatom-group/the-nuclear-icebreaker-fleet/#:~:text=Russia%20possesse s%20the%20world's%20only,application%20of%20advanced%20nuclear%20technology.&te xt=The%20Northern%20Sea%20Route%20is,Pacific%20regions%20via%20the%20Arctic (20.10.2020).
• Samuels, Richard J. ve Corey Wallace. “Introduction: Japan’s Pivot in Asia”. Foreign Affairs 94, sy. 4 (2018): 703-710.
• Sharp, Greg. “An old problem, a new opportunity: A case for solving the Beaufort Sea boundary dispute”. The Arctic Institute, 2016. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/an-old-problem-a-new-opportunity-a-case-for-solving-the-b eaufort-sea-boundary-dispute/ (23.11.2020).
• Shea, Neil. “Scenes from the new Cold War unfolding at the top of the world”. National Geographic, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/10/new-cold-war-brews-as-arctic-ice- melts/ (20.11.2020).
• Shuang, Feng . “China’s polar icebreaker heading home from Arctic expedition”. China News Service (ECNS), 2020. http://www.ecns.cn/news/2020-09-17/detail-ihaaeqyp8471195.shtml (31.10.2020).
• Smith, Laurence C. ve Scott R. Stephenson. “New Trans-Arctic shipping routes navigable by midcentury”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) 110, sy. 13 (2013): E1191-E1195.
• Sommerkon, Marti vd. “Executive Summary”. Arctic Climate Feedbacks: Global Implications içinde, Editör: Martin Sommerkon ve Susan Joy Hassol, 5-16. Oslo: WWF International Arctic Programme, 2009.
• Sørensen, Camilla T. N. ve Ekaterina Klimenko. “Emerging Chinese-Russian Cooperation in the Arctic. Possibilities and constraints”. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 47 (2017): 5.
• Stephen, Kathrin. “An Arctic Security Forum? Please, no!”. The Arctic Institute, 2016. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/arctic-security-forum-please-dont/ (20.11.2020).
• The Arctic Institute. “Canada”. The Arctic Institute, 2020. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/canada/#:~:text=This%20massive%20swath%20o f%20land,of%20the%20Arctic%20coastal%20plains. (19.10.2020).
• The Arctic Institute. “Russia”. The Arctic Institute, 2020. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/ (19.10.2020).
• The World Counts. “The Canary in the Gold Mine…”. The World Counts. https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Ice-Cap-Melting-Facts (03.11.2020).
• Turunen, Eeva. “Resources in the Arctic 2019”. Nordregio, 2019. https://nordregio.org/maps/resources-in-the-arctic-2019/ (31.10.2020).
• U.S. Department of State. “Briefing on the Administration’s Arctic Strategy”. U.S. Department of State, 2020. https://www.state.gov/briefing-with-senior-state-department-official-on-the-administrations-ar ctic-strategy/ (20.11.2020).
• U.S. Department of State. “U.S. Arctic Policy”. U.S. Department of State. https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/oes/ocns/arc//index.htm#:~:text=U.S.%20Arctic%20policy%20 emphasizes%20environmental,well%2Dbeing%20of%20Arctic%20communities. (15.10.2020).
• Uluslararası Göç Örgütü (IOM). “Migration and Climate Change”. Rapor. Yayımlanmış Araştırma. (Cenevre: Uluslararası Göç Örgütü, 2008): 1-60.
• Union of Concerned Scientists. “Each Country’s Share of CO2 Emissions”. Union of Concerned Scientists, 2020. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions (24.11.2020).
• United States Coast Guard (USCG) Office of Waterways and Ocean Policy (CG-WWM). “Major Icebreakers of the World”. United States Coast Guard (USCG) Office of Waterways and Ocean Policy (CG-WWM), 2017. https://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg552/ice.asp (20.10.2020).
• Urban, Ondrej. “Future of the Arctic Oil Reserves”. Stanford University Coursework PH240, 2015. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2015/ph240/urban2/#:~:text=Available%20Resources&text= As%20such%2C%20the%20Arctic%20is,world's%20individual%20undiscovered%20hydroc arbon%20resources. (31.10.2020).
• VanBuren, Collin. “Beyond Polar Bears: Biodiversity Loss Threatens Life in the Arctic”. The Arctic Institute, 2019. https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/beyond-polar-bears-biodiversity-loss-threatens-life-arctic/#: ~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20disappearing%20ice,the%20arrival%20of%20new% 20diseases. (24.11.2020).
• Weitz, Richard. “US Policy Towards the Arctic: Adapting to a Changing Environment”. International Centre for Defence and Security (RKK-ICDS), 2019. https://icds.ee/en/us-policy-towards-the-arctic-adapting-to-a-changing-environment/ (16.10.2020).
• Westermeyer, William E. “United States Arctic Interests: Background for Policy”. United States Arctic Interests. The 1980s and 1990s içinde, Editör: William E. Westermeyer ve Kurt M. Shusterich, 1-18. New York: Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 1984.
• Williams, Lisa. “Canada, the Arctic, and Post-National Identity in the Circumpolar World”. The Northern Review 33, sy. Bahar (2011): 113-131.
• Williams, Tim. “The Arctic: Environmental Issues”. Parliament of Canada. Library of Parliament, 2012. https://lop.parl.ca/sites/PublicWebsite/default/en_CA/ResearchPublications/200804E#a10 (03.11.2020).
• Wilson Center. “The Arctic and U.S. National Security”. Wilson Center, 2018. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/the-arctic-and-us-national-security (15.10.2020).
• Woody, Christopher . “China’s first homemade icebreaker heads to the Arctic as Trump looks for 10 more of them from ‘a certain place’”. Business Insider, 2020. https://www.businessinsider.com/china-xuelong-2-icebreaker-arctic-trump-deals-for-more-20 20-7 (31.10.2020).
• Zanbak, Mehmet, Akay, A. Beyhan, “Bir Çekim Merkezi Olarak Arktika’nın Çin Ekonomisi Açısından Önemi: Seçilmiş Endüstrilere Yönelik Bazı Çıkarımlar”, Akdeniz İİBF Dergisi 19, Özel Sayı (2019): 92-121.