<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.4 20241031//EN"
        "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.4/JATS-journalpublishing1-4.dtd">
<article  article-type="research-article"        dtd-version="1.4">
            <front>

                <journal-meta>
                                    <journal-id></journal-id>
            <journal-title-group>
                                                                                    <journal-title>Annales de la Faculté de Droit d’Istanbul</journal-title>
            </journal-title-group>
                            <issn pub-type="ppub">0578-9745</issn>
                                        <issn pub-type="epub">2687-4113</issn>
                                                                                            <publisher>
                    <publisher-name>Istanbul University</publisher-name>
                </publisher>
                    </journal-meta>
                <article-meta>
                                        <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.26650/annales.2022.71.0004</article-id>
                                                                <article-categories>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="en">
                                                            <subject>Law in Context</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="tr">
                                                            <subject>Hukuk</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                    </article-categories>
                                                                                                                                                        <title-group>
                                                                                                                        <article-title>Contractual Performance Facing Covid-19: A Comparative Analysis</article-title>
                                                                                                                                                                                                                </title-group>
            
                                                    <contrib-group content-type="authors">
                                                                        <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9303-1062</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Kahraman</surname>
                                    <given-names>Zafer</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>BAHÇEŞEHİR ÜNİVERSİTESİ</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                                                </contrib-group>
                        
                                        <pub-date pub-type="pub" iso-8601-date="20221231">
                    <day>12</day>
                    <month>31</month>
                    <year>2022</year>
                </pub-date>
                                                    <issue>71</issue>
                                        <fpage>309</fpage>
                                        <lpage>348</lpage>
                        
                        <history>
                                    <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="20220125">
                        <day>01</day>
                        <month>25</month>
                        <year>2022</year>
                    </date>
                                                    <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="20220406">
                        <day>04</day>
                        <month>06</month>
                        <year>2022</year>
                    </date>
                            </history>
                                        <permissions>
                    <copyright-statement>Copyright © 1951, Annales de la Faculté de Droit d’Istanbul</copyright-statement>
                    <copyright-year>1951</copyright-year>
                    <copyright-holder>Annales de la Faculté de Droit d’Istanbul</copyright-holder>
                </permissions>
            
                                                                                                <abstract><p>Covid-19 is a social disaster, an unforeseen and unavoidable event affecting most of the pre-existing contracts, which has occurred beyond the control of the parties. The drastic measures taken by governments to protect public health, emanated some radical changes in the circumstances on which most of the contracts were based.The impact of Covid-19 differs in various contracts. It adversely affects some of the contracts by preventing or impeding the disadvantaged party to perform, whereas in some other cases it causes a radical change in circumstances generating an excessive difficulty to the fulfillment of the contract, which renders performance unreasonable and the contract unfair. It is also possible that the contract might even not be affected by the pandemic. In short, it renders some contracts impossible and for some others, it makes them unreasonably difficult to perform. This article focuses on the agreements “infected” by the Covid-19 pandemic, by studying its legal implications.Within the framework of this article, the legal nature of the pandemic will be presented and its impact on the contracts will be discussed. The aim is to provide both academic analysis and an idea of the way civil law and common law systems are coping.</p></abstract>
                                                                                                                                    
            
                                                            <kwd-group>
                                                    <kwd>Law</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Covid-19</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Force Majeure</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Hardship</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Frustration</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Contract law</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                                
                                                                            <kwd-group xml:lang="tr">
                                                    <kwd>Law</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Covid-19</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Force Majeure</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Hardship</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Frustration</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Contract law</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                <kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
                                                    <kwd>Law</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Covid-19</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Force Majeure</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Hardship</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Frustration</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Contract law</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                <kwd-group xml:lang="de">
                                                    <kwd>Law</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Covid-19</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Force Majeure</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Hardship</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Frustration</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Contract law</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                            </article-meta>
    </front>
    <back>
                            <ref-list>
                                    <ref id="ref1">
                        <label>1</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Akyol Ş, Dürüstlük Kuralı ve Hakkın Kötüye Kullanılması Yasağı (Vedat 1995). Antalya OG, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (2nd ed. Seçkin 2019).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref2">
                        <label>2</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Arat A, ‘Küresel Salgının İşyeri Kiralarına Etkisi ve Çözüm in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 283.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref3">
                        <label>3</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Arat A, Sözleşmenin Değişen Şartlara Uyarlanması (Seçkin 2006).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref4">
                        <label>4</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Aydoğdu M and Yağcıoğlu AH, ‘Kovid-19 Salgınının Borç İlişkilerine ve Yargılamaya Etkileri’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref5">
                        <label>5</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Baysal B and Uyanık M and Yavuz S, ‘Koronavirüs 2019 ve Sözleşmeler’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 269.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref6">
                        <label>6</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Baysal B, ‘Yeniden Müzakere Ödevi’ in Prof. Dr. Hasan Erman’a Armağan (2015) 185. Baysal B, Sözleşmenin Uyarlanması (Onikilevha 2009).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref7">
                        <label>7</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Beale H and Twigg-Flesner C, ‘COVID-19 and English Contract Law’ &lt;https://www. intersentiaonline.com/publication/coronavirus-and-the-law-in-europe/28&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref8">
                        <label>8</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Bischoff J, Vertagsrisiko Und Clausula Rebus Sic Stantibus (Schulthess 1983) Braunschneider H, Das Skript Schuldrecht, Allgemeiner Teil (Bund-Verlag 2002).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref9">
                        <label>9</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Burcuoğlu H, Son Mahkeme Kararlari Ve Yargitay Kararları Işığında Hukukta Beklenmeyen Hal Ve Uyarlama (Filiz 1995).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref10">
                        <label>10</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Canbolat F, Sözleşmelerde Amacın Gerçekleşmesi, Çökmesi ve Boşa Çıkması (Yetkin 2012).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref11">
                        <label>11</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cartwright J, Contract Law, An Introduction to the English Law of Contract for the Civil Lawyer (3rd edn Hart 2016).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref12">
                        <label>12</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Chandler PA, ‘Self-Induced Frustration, Forseeability and Risk’ (1990) 41 N. Ir. Legal Q. 362. Charman M, Contract Law (4th edn Routledge 2007).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref13">
                        <label>13</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cumalıoğlu E, ‘Covid-19 (Yeni Korona Virüs) Pandemisinin Özel Hukuk Sözleşmelerine Etkisinin; İmkânsızlık, Amacın Bozulması, Uyarlama ve Ödemezlik Def ’i Bakımından Değerlendirilmesi’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 295.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref14">
                        <label>14</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Deschenaux H and Tercier P, La responsabilité civile (Stæmpfli 1982).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref15">
                        <label>15</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Dural M, Borçlunun Sorumlu Olmadığı Sonraki İmkânsızlık (Fakülteler 1976). Eren F, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (24nd ed. 2019).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref16">
                        <label>16</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Eren F, Sorumluluk Hukuku Açısından Uygun İlliyet Bağı Teorisi (Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi 1975).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref17">
                        <label>17</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Erman H, ‘Borçlar Hukukunda Akit Serbestisi ve Genel Olarak Sınırlamaları’ (1973) Istanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası 601.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref18">
                        <label>18</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Erzurumluoğlu E, Türk İsviçre Borçlar Hukuku Sistemine Göre Borçluya Yüklenemeyen Nedenlerden Dolayı Edimin Yerine Getirilememesi (1970).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref19">
                        <label>19</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">European Law Institute &lt;www.europeanlawinstitute.eu&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref20">
                        <label>20</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Furmston MP, Cheshire GC, Fifoot CHS, Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston’s Law of Contract (16th edn Oxford University Press 2012).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref21">
                        <label>21</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gözübüyük AP, Mücbir Sebepler Beklenmeyen Haller (Kazancı 1977).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref22">
                        <label>22</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gündoğdu F and Ural N, ‘Koronavirüs (Covid-19) Tedbirlerinin Kira Sözleşmelerine Etkisi’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 372.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref23">
                        <label>23</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gürsoy KT, Hususi Hukukta Clausula Rebus Sic Stantibus (Emprevizyon Nazariyesi) (1950) Harke JD, Allgemeines Schuldrecht (Springer 2010).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref24">
                        <label>24</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hatemi H and Gökyayla KE, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (4th edn Vedat 2017).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref25">
                        <label>25</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Havutçu A, Tam İki Tarafa Borç Yükleyen Sözleşmelerde Temerrüt ve Müspet Zararın Tazmini (Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi 1995).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref26">
                        <label>26</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">İnal HT, ‘Sözleşmenin Kurulması Esnasında Öngörülemeyen Sonraki İfa İmkansızlığı ve Mücbir Sebep’ (2014) Kazancı Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, 115.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref27">
                        <label>27</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">İnce N, ‘Yeniden Müzakere Etme Borcu Mu Külfeti Mi?’ (2017) 33,1 Batider 179.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref28">
                        <label>28</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">İnce N, Der Wegfall Der Geschäftsgrundlage Nach Deutschem Und Türkischem Recht (2015). Junod CA, Force majeure et cas fortuit dans le système suisse de la responsabilité civile (Georg 1956).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref29">
                        <label>29</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kahraman Z, Saf Garanti Taahhütleri (Vedat 2017).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref30">
                        <label>30</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kaplan İ, Hakimin Sözleşmeye Müdahalesi (3rd edn Yetkin 2013)</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref31">
                        <label>31</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kaya Ü, ‘Sözleşmenin Uyarlanmasında Sonradan Değişen Şartlar ve Öngörülemezlik İlkesi’ in</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref32">
                        <label>32</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Prof. Dr. Cevdet Yavuz’a Armağan (2012) 1569.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref33">
                        <label>33</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Keller M and Schöbi C, Das Schweizerische Schuldrecht (Helbing und Lichtenhahn 1984) Vol.4. Kelly H, ‘The Classical Definition of a Pandemic is not Elusive’ (2011) Bull World Health Org 540. Kılıçoğlu AM, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (16th edn Turhan 2012).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref34">
                        <label>34</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kocayusufpaşaoğlu N, ‘İşlem Temelinin Çökmüş Sayılabilmesi İçin Sosyal Felaket Olarak Nitelenebilecek Olağanüstü Bir Olayın Gerçekleşmesi Şart Mıdır?’ in M. Kemal Oğuzman’ın Anısına Armağan (2000) 506.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref35">
                        <label>35</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kurt LM, Borçlunun Sorumlu Olmadığı Sonraki İmkânsızlık (Yetkin 2016). Larenz K, Geschäftsgrundlage und Vertragserfüllung (3rd edn C.H. Beck 1963)</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref36">
                        <label>36</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Listings of WHO’s Response to Covid-19 (2020), &lt;https://www.who.int/news/item/29-06-2020- covidtimeline&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref37">
                        <label>37</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Makaracı-Başak A and Öktem-Çevik S, ‘Koronavirüsün İşyeri Kira Sözleşmelerine Etkisi’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 393.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref38">
                        <label>38</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">McKendrick E, Contract Law, Text, Cases And Materials (8th edn Oxford University Press 2017). Nomer HN, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (Beta 2017).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref39">
                        <label>39</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">O’Sullivan J, The Law Of Contract (8th edn Oxford University Press 2018). Oertmann P, Die Geschäftsgrundlage, ein neuer Rechtsbegriff (A. Deichert 1921).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref40">
                        <label>40</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Oftinger K, Cari Akitlerin Temellerinde Buhran İcabı Tahavvül (Clausula Rebus Sic Stantibus Hakkında) (1942) 8 İÜHFDM, 612.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref41">
                        <label>41</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Oğuzman MK and Öz T, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (2017) Vol.1.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref42">
                        <label>42</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özçelik ŞB, ‘Covid-19 Salgını Çerçevesinde Alınan Önlemlerin Sözleşme Hukuku ve Mücbir Sebep Kavramı Açısından Değerlendirilmesi’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 283.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref43">
                        <label>43</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özçelik ŞB, ‘Sözleşmeden Doğan Borçların İfasında Hukukî İmkânsızlık ve Sonuçları’ (2014) 63(3) Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 569.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref44">
                        <label>44</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özer T, ‘Covid-19 Salgınının İş Yeri Kiralarında Kiracının Kira Bedelini Ödeme Borcuna Etkisi’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 451.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref45">
                        <label>45</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özer T, Özel Hukukta Mücbir Sebep Beklenmeyen Hal Covid-19 Yorumu (Vedat 2020).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref46">
                        <label>46</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Öztürk A, ‘Covid-19: Just Disastrous or the Disaster Itself? Applying the ILC Articles on the Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters to the Covid-19 Outbreak’ (2020) 24 American Society Of Int’l Law, &lt;https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/24/issue/6/covid-19-just- disastrous-or-disaster-itself-applying-ilc-articles&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref47">
                        <label>47</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Pekdinçer T and Toprakkaya-Babalık İ, ‘Koronavirüs Salgınının Sözleşmelere Etkisi, İfa İmkânsızlığı, İfa Güçlüğü ve Uyarlama’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 303.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref48">
                        <label>48</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Pichonnaz P, ‘Un droit contractuel extraordinaire ou comment régler les problèmes contractuels en temps de pandémie’ (2020) Sondernummer der Zeitschrift für Schweizerisches Recht 137.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref49">
                        <label>49</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Pichonnaz P, Impossibilité et exorbitance (Univ. Fribourg 1997).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref50">
                        <label>50</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">PuelinckxAH, ‘Frustration, Hardship, Force Majeure, Imprévision, Wegfallder Geschäftsgrundlage, Unmöglichkeit, Changed Circumstances’ (1986) 3 J. Intl Arb 47</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref51">
                        <label>51</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Richards P, Law of Contract (11th edn Pearson 2013).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref52">
                        <label>52</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Schenker F, Die Voraussetzungen und die Folgen des Schuldnerverzugs im Schweizerischen Obligationenrecht (Univ-Verlag 1988).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref53">
                        <label>53</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Schwenzer I, Schweizerische Obligationenrecht, Allgemeiner Teil (5th edn Stämpfli 2009).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref54">
                        <label>54</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Seçkin Topuz, Türk-Isviçre ve Alman Borçlar Hukukunda Denge Bozulmasi ve Ifa Güçlüğü Durumlarinda Sözleşmeye Müdahale (Yetkin 2009).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref55">
                        <label>55</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Seliçi Ö, Özel Hukukta Mücbir Sebep ve Uygulanış Tarzı in Sorumluluk Hukukunda Yeni Gelişmeler III Sempozyumu (İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi 1980) 61.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref56">
                        <label>56</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Seliçi Ö, Borçlar Kanununa Göre Sözleşmeden Doğan Sürekli Borç Ilişkilerinin Sona Ermesi (Fakülteler 1977).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref57">
                        <label>57</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Serozan R, ‘Karşılıklı Sözleşmelerde Baştan Dayatılmış veya Sonradan Oluşmuş Edimler Arası Dengesizliğin Uyarlama Yoluyla Düzeltilmesi’ in M. Kemal Oğuzman’ın Anısına Armağan (2000) 1013.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref58">
                        <label>58</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Serozan R, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Bölüm, Ifa-Ifa Engelleri-Haksiz Zenginleşme (Filiz 2006) Vol 3.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref59">
                        <label>59</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Smit H, ‘Frustration of Contract, A Comparative Attempt at Consolidation’ (1958) 58 Columbia L Rev 287.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref60">
                        <label>60</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Şahin H, Mücbir Sebep Nedeniyle Borcun Ifa Edilememesi (Onikilevha 2020). Tandoğan H, Türk Mesuliyet Hukuku (2nd edn Vedat 2010).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref61">
                        <label>61</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tekinay SS and Akman S and Burcuoğlu H and Altop A, Borçlar Hukuku Genel Hükümler (Filiz 1993).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref62">
                        <label>62</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">The Principles Of European Contract Law [“PECL”], &lt;https://www.trans-lex.org/400200/_/pecl/&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref63">
                        <label>63</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">The Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts [“PICC”], &lt;https://www.unidroit. org/instruments/commercial-contracts/unidroit-principles-2016&gt; accessed 27 February 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref64">
                        <label>64</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Treitel G, ‘Some Comparative Notes on English and American Contract Law’ (2002) 55 Smu L Rev 357. Treitel G, Frustration and Force Majeure (3rd edn Sweet &amp; Maxwell 2014).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref65">
                        <label>65</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tunçomağ K, ‘Borcun İfasında Aşırı Güçlük ve Alman Yargıtayı’ (2011) 1, 7 Marmara Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi 87.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref66">
                        <label>66</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Uçaryılmaz TŞ, Bona Fides (Dürüstlük Kuralı) (Yetkin 2019).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref67">
                        <label>67</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Von Büren B, Schweizerische Obligationenrecht, Allgemeiner Teil (Schulthess 1964).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref68">
                        <label>68</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Von Tuhr A and Escher A, Allgemeiner Teil Des Schweizerischen Obligationenrecht (3rd edn Schulthess 1974) Vol.2.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref69">
                        <label>69</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Weber RH, OR art. 103 in Berner Kommentar, Schweizerisches Zivilgesetzbuch, Das Obligationenrecht, (Stæmpfli 2002)</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref70">
                        <label>70</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Whincup MH, Contract Law and Practice: The English System and Continental Comparisons (5th edn Kluwer Law International 2006).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref71">
                        <label>71</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Wiegand W, ‘OR art. 119’ in Basler Kommentar zum Schweizerischen Privatrecht, Obligationenrecht (6th edn Helbing Lichtenhahn 2015).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref72">
                        <label>72</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Williams T, ‘Restatement of the Law of Contracts of the American Law Institute, Sections 454-469, with Missouri Annotations’ (1933) 18 St Louis L Rev 181.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref73">
                        <label>73</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Yünlü S, ‘Küresel Salgının Sözleşmelere Etkisi: Corona Virüsü (Covid-19) Olağanüstü Örneği’ in Covid-19 Salgınının Hukuki Boyutu, Hukukun Tüm Alanlarında Değerlendirmeler (Onikilevha 2020) 323.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref74">
                        <label>74</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Zimmermann R, The New German Law Of Obligations (Oxford University Press 2005).</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref75">
                        <label>75</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cases Turkish law:</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref76">
                        <label>76</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">TCC General Assembly on the unification of the conflicting judgments (6 May 2016) E. 2015/1, K. 2016/1</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref77">
                        <label>77</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">TCC General Assembly (27 June 2018) E. 2017/90, K. 2018/1259 TCC General Assembly (7 May 2003) E. 2003/13-332, K. 2003/340 TCC General Assembly (28 Avril 2010) E. 2010/15-193, K. 2010/235</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref78">
                        <label>78</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">TCC General Assembly (30 October 2002) E. 2002/13-852, K. 2002/864 TCC 3rd Civil Chamber (4 June 2021) E. 2021/3452 K. 2021/6001 Swiss law:</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref79">
                        <label>79</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">BGE 111 II 433</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref80">
                        <label>80</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">BGE 102 II 262</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref81">
                        <label>81</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">BGE 91 II 474</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref82">
                        <label>82</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">BGE 88 II 283, 291</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref83">
                        <label>83</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">French law:</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref84">
                        <label>84</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">CCass Assemblée plénière (14 Avril 2006) 02-11.168</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref85">
                        <label>85</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">CCass 1ère civ. (30 October 2008) 07-17134</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref86">
                        <label>86</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">CCass soc. (16 May 2012) 10-17.726</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref87">
                        <label>87</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">CCass 3e civ (15 October 2013) 12-23126</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref88">
                        <label>88</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Common law:</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref89">
                        <label>89</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Amalgamated Investment &amp; Property Co. Ltd v. John Walker &amp; Sons Ltd (1977) 1 WLR 164</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref90">
                        <label>90</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Autry v. Republic Productions, Inc. (1947) 30 Cal.2d 144</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref91">
                        <label>91</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Chandler v. Webster (1904) 1 KB 493</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref92">
                        <label>92</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Chandris v Isbrandtsen Moller Co Inc (1951) 1 K.B. 240 (20 July 1950) Channel Island Ferries Ltd v Sealink UK Ltd (1988) 1 Lloyd’s Rep 323 Condor v Barron Knights (1966) 1 WLR 87</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref93">
                        <label>93</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cutter v. Powell (1795) 6 TR 320</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref94">
                        <label>94</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Davis Contractors, Ltd. v. Fareham U.D.C. (1956) A.C. 696 (HL) 728</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref95">
                        <label>95</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Davis v GN Mortgage Corp. (2003) F. Supp. 2d 950</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref96">
                        <label>96</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Denny, Mott &amp; Dickson Ltd v James B Fraser &amp; Co Ltd (1944) AC 265</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref97">
                        <label>97</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Eugenia (1964) 1 All ER 161</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref98">
                        <label>98</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Fibrosa Spolka Akcyjna v Fairbairn Lawson Combe Barbour Ltd [1942] UKHL 4</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref99">
                        <label>99</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gamerco SA v ICM/Fair Warning (Agency) Ltd (1995) 1 WLR 1226</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref100">
                        <label>100</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Herne Bay Steamboat Co. v. Hutton (1903) 2 KB 683</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref101">
                        <label>101</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hirji Mulji v Cheong Yue Steamship Co Ltd (1926) AC 497</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref102">
                        <label>102</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">J Lauritzen AS v. Wijsmuller BV (“The Super Servant Two”) (1990) 1 Lloyd’s Rep 1 Joseph Constantine Steamship Line Ltd v Imperial Smelting Corpn Ltd (1942) AC 154 Krell v. Henry (1903) 2 KB 740</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref103">
                        <label>103</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Maritime National Fish Ltd v Ocean Trawlers (1935) AC 524, PC Metropolitan Water Board v Dick Kerr and Co Ltd (1918) AC 119 Morgan v. Manser (1948) 1 KB 184</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref104">
                        <label>104</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">National Carriers Ltd v Panalpina (Northern) Ltd (1981) A.C. 675</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref105">
                        <label>105</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Paradine v. Jane, 82. Eng. Rep. 897</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref106">
                        <label>106</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Pioneer Shipping Ltd v BTP Tioxide Ltd (The Nema) (1982) AC 724</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref107">
                        <label>107</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tandarin Aviation Holdings Ltd. v Aero Toy Sore LLC (2010) 2 Lloyd’s Rep 668</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref108">
                        <label>108</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Taylor v Caldwell (1863) 3 B &amp; S 826, QB</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref109">
                        <label>109</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tsakiroglu &amp; Co. Ltd v. Noblee Thorl GmbH (1962) AC 93</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref110">
                        <label>110</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Walford v Miles (1992) 2 AC 128</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref111">
                        <label>111</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Walton Harvey Ltd v Walker and Homfrays Ltd (1931) 1 Ch 274</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                            </ref-list>
                    </back>
    </article>
