Meslek Sosyolojisinde Teorik Yaklaşımlar

Year 2020, Issue: Özel Sayı 1 / Supplement 1, 1 - 27, 11.09.2020

Elyesa Koytak

https://doi.org/10.26650/JECS2020-0010

Abstract

Türkiye’de meslek sosyolojisi son on yılda gelişen bir alan olarak henüz teorik ve kavramsal bir zemine sahip değildir. Bu makalenin amacı Durkheim ve Weber’den bugüne sosyoloji külliyatında meslek olgusuna dair geliştirilen teorik yaklaşımları eleştirel bir şekilde değerlendirip tasnif etmektir. Meslek olgusu farklı dönemlerde ve farklı ulusal bağlamlarda değişen açılardan ele alınmış ve tanımlanmıştır. Bilhassa DurkheimcıFlexnercı bir çerçeve geliştiren işlevselci meslek tanımı 1970’lere kadar etkili olmuştur. Batı toplumlarında yaygın şekilde kullanılan profession tabiri, avukatlık ve hekimlik gibi 19. yüzyıldan bu yana yüksek gelir, statü ve imtiyaz ifade eden işleri model alan bu geleneğin mirasıdır. Meslek olgusu bu çerçevede bir tür ahlak ve denge mekanizması olarak düşünülmüş; bu da bir özellikler seti olarak tanımlanmasını beraberinde getirmiştir. Alternatif olarak profesyonelleşme ve meslek aşınması kavramları mesleği süreç olarak düşünmeyi teklif etmiştir. 1970’lerden itibaren çatışma, mücadele ve iktidar mefhumlarını merkeze alan Weberci ve Marksist yaklaşımlar alana girmiş ve eleştirel, şüpheci ve ilişkisel bir bakış gelişmiştir. Meslekî kapanma ve tekel, proleterleşme, çatışma ve iktidar alanı olarak meslek gibi mefhumlar son otuz yılda yaygınlaşmıştır. Bununla birlikte farklı tarihsel tecrübelere dair çalışmalar arttıkça meslek anlamında profession kavramına dair tashih ihtiyacı da belirginleşmektedir.

Keywords

Meslek sosyolojisi, işlevselcilik, profesyonelleşme, meslekî kapanma, proleterleşme

Theoretical Approaches in the Sociology of Professions

Abstract

The sociology of professions as a developing field in the last decade in Turkey does not yet have a theoretical and conceptual ground. This article aims to critically evaluate and classify the theoretical approaches developed to understand professions in the sociology literature since Durkheim and Weber. In sociology, professions have been analyzed from different perspectives that vary according to different national contexts and periods. The functionalist definition of professions which is rooted in Durkheimian-Flexnerian framework in particular has been dominant until the 1970s. The term profession is a legacy of this tradition which took as a universal model prestigious jobs such as the lawyer and physician that have designated a high status and high income in Western societies since the 19th century. In this framework, professions are considered as sets of traits and attributes that are convenient to function as moral balance mechanisms. Alternatively, the concepts of professionalization and deprofessionalization offer to reconsider the established professions as dynamic processes rather than abstracted models. Since the 1970s, Weberian and Marxist approaches that emphasize conflict, struggle and power rather than harmony, have entered the field and fostered critical, skeptical and relational perspectives. Notions such as professional closure and monopoly, proletarianization, and field of power have become widespread in the last thirty years. In addition, as studies on different historical experiences increase, the need for a fundamental revision of the concept profession becomes indispensable.

Keywords

Sociology of professions, functionalism, professionalization, professional closure, proletarianization

References

• Abbott, A. (1981). Status and status strain in the professions. American Journal of Sociology, 86(4), 819─835.
• Abbott, A. (1988). The system of professions: An essay on the division of expert labor. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press.
• Adams, T. L. (2010). Profession: A useful concept for sociological analysis? Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie, 47(1), 49─70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2010.01222.x
• Adams, T. L. (2015). Sociology of professions: International divergences and research directions. Work, Employment and Society, 29(1), 154─165.
• Akbaş, K. (2015). Avukatlık mesleğinin ekonomi politiği: Avukatların sınıfsal konumlarındaki değişim (2. baskı). Ankara: NotaBene Yayınları.
• Akkaş, E. (2016). Türkiye’de hekimlik mesleğinin kültürel belirleyicileri üzerine nitel bir çalışma (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Isparta.
• Allsop, J., & Saks, M. (Ed.). (2003). Regulating the health professions. Londra: SAGE Publications.
• Altun, F. (2017). Modernleşme kuramı: Eleştirel bir giriş. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları.
• Atacan, F. (Ed.). (2002). “Hayatımda hiç arkaya bakmadım”: Mübeccel Kıray’la söyleşi (2. baskı). İstanbul: Bağlam Yayınları.
• Atalay, M. (2017). Hekimlik mesleğindeki değişimin meslekler sosyolojisi açısından incelenmesi (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Akdeniz Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Antalya.
• Barber, B. (1963). Some problems in the sociology of the professions. Daedalus, 92(4), 669─688.
• Beck, A. H. (2004). The Flexner report and the standardization of American medical education. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(17), 2139─2140. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.291.17.2139
• Becker, H. S. (1970). The nature of a profession. Içinde H. S.
• Becker (Ed.), Sociological Work. Chicago: Aldine. Becker, H. S., Geer, B., Hughes, E. C., & Strauss, A. L. (1976). Boys in white: Student culture in medical school (Reprint of the edition Chigaco, University of Chicago Press, 1961). New Brunswick: Transaction Publishing.
• Berlant, J. (1975). Profession and monopoly: A study of medicine in the United States and Great Britain. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Blau, P. M., & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American occupational structure. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Bol, T., & Weeden, K. A. (2015). Occupational closure and wage inequality in Germany and the United Kingdom. European Sociological Review, 31(3), 354─369. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcu095
• Bonner, T. N. (1998). Searching for Abraham Flexner. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 73(2), 160─166.
• Bora, A., Erdoğan, N., Bora, T., & Üstün, İ. (2011). Boşuna mı okuduk? Türkiye’de beyaz yakalı işsizliği. Cağaloğlu, İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• Bourdieu, P. (1986). La force du droit: Eléments pour une sociologie du champ juridique. Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 64(1), 3─19. https://doi.org/10.3406/arss.1986.2332
• Bourdieu, P. (1998). Contre-feux: Propos pour servir à la résistance contre l’invasion néo-libérale. Paris: Raisons d’Agir.
• Bourdieu, P. (2000). Homo academicus. Paris: Minuit.
• Bourdieu, P. (2009). Les règles de l’art: Genèse et structure du champ littéraire. Paris: Seuil.
• Bourdieu, P. (2011). With Weber against Weber: In Conversation with Pierre
• Bourdieu. S. Susen & B. S. Turner (Ed.), The legacy of Pierre Bourdieu. Critical essays içinde (ss. 111─124). London New York: Anthem Press.
• Bourdieu, P. (2014). Les structures sociales de l’économie. Paris: Points.
• Bourdieu, P. (2015). Bilimin toplumsal kullanımları: Bilimsel alanın klinik bir sosyolojisi için (L. Ünsaldı, Çev.). Ankara: Heretik.
• Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. (2016). Düşünümsel bir antropoloji için cevaplar (8. bs; N. Ökten, Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and monopoly capital: The degradation of work in the twentieth century. New York: Monthly Review Press.
• Brooks, R. A. (2012). Cheaper by the hour: Temporary lawyers and the deprofessionalization of the law. Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press.
• Bucher, R., & Strauss, A. (1961). Professions in process. American Journal of Sociology, 66(4), 325─334.
• Burrage, M. (2006). Revolution and the making of the contemporary legal profession: England, France, and the United States. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Burrage, M., & Torstendahl, R. (Ed.). (1990). Professions in theory and history: Rethinking the study of the professions. London: SAGE Publications.
• Caplow, T. (1954). The sociology of work. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Carchedi, G. (1977). On the economic identification of social classes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Carr-Saunders, A., & Wilson, P. A. (1933). The professions. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Carver, T., & Farr, J. (Ed.). (2015). The Cambridge companion to the Communist Manifesto. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Champy, F. (2012). La sociologie des professions (2. bs). Paris: PUF.
• Cirhinlioğlu, Z. (Ed.). (1996). Meslekler ve sosyoloji. Ankara: Gündoğan Yayınları.
• Cirhinlioğlu, Z. (1997). Türkiye’de hukuk mesleği. Ankara: Gündoğan Yayınları.
• Coburn, D. (1994). Professionalization and proletarianization: Medicine, nursing, and chiropractic in historical perspective. Labour / Le Travail, 34, 139─162. https://doi.org/10.2307/25143848
• Collins, R. (1990). Market closure and the conflict theory of the professions. M. Burrage & R. Torstendahl (Ed.), Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions içinde (ss. 24─43). Londra: SAGE Publications.
• Collins, R. (2019). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Çıngı, H., & Kasnakoğlu, Z. (1980). Öznel meslek saygınlığı üzerine bulgular: Ankara, 1977. ODTÜ Gelişme Dergisi, 7(3-4), 317─360.
• Davis, K., & Moore, W. E. (1945). Some principles of stratification. American Sociological Review, 10(2), 242-249.
• Dent, M., Bourgeault, I. L., Denis, J.-L., & Kuhlmann, E. (Ed.). (2016). The Routledge companion to the professions and professionalism. London: Routledge.
• Derber, C. (1983). Managing professionals: Ideological proletarianization and post-industrial labor. Theory and Society, 12(3), 309─341.
• Dezalay, Y., & Garth, B. G. (2010). Asian legal revivals: Lawyers in the shadow of empire. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. Dezalay, Y., & Madsen, M. R. (2012). The Force of Law and lawyers: Pierre Bourdieu and the reflexive sociology of law. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 8(1), 433─452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevlawsocsci-102811-173817
• Dingwall, R., & Lewis, P. (Ed.). (1983). The sociology of the professions: Lawyers, doctors and others. Londra: Macmillan.
• Dubar, C., & Tripier, P. (1998). Sociologie des professions. Paris: Armand Colin.
• Duncan, O. D. (1961). A socioeconomic index for all occupations. A. Reiss (Ed.), Occupations and Social Status içinde (ss. 109-138). New York: Free Press.
• Durkheim, É. (1986). Meslek ahlâkı (3. bs; M. Karasan, Çev.). İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı Yayınları. Durmaz, O. S. (2014). Türkiye’de öğretmen olmak: Emek süreci ve yeniden proleterleşme. Ankara: NotaBene Yayınları.
• Edwards, A. (1943). Comparative occupational statistics for the United States, 1870-1940. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Ehrenreich, B., & Ehrenreich, J. (1979). The professional managerial class. P. Walker (Ed.), Between Capital and Labour içinde (ss. 5─45). Brighton: Harvester Press.
• Erikson, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1992). The constant flux: A study of class mobility in industrial societies. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Erikson, R., Goldthorpe, J. H., & Portocarero, L. (1979). Intergenerational class mobility in three Western European societies: England, France and Sweden. The British Journal of Sociology, 30(4), 415─441.
• Ertem, E. C. (2018). Bir mesleğin kavramsal değişimi: Neoliberal dönemde Türkiye’de öğretmenlik mesleğinin dönüşümü (1980-2013) (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Etzioni, A. (Ed.). (1969). The semi-professions and their organization: Teachers, nurses, social workers. New York: Free Press.
• Evetts, J. (1999). Professions: Changes and continuities. International Review of Sociology, 9(1), 75─86.
• Evetts, J. (2003). The sociological analysis of professionalism: Occupational change in the modern world. International Sociology, 18(2), 395─415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580903018002005
• Faulconbridge, J. R., & Muzio, D. (2012). Professions in a globalizing world: Towards a transnational sociology of the professions. International Sociology, 27(1), 136─152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580911423059
• Flexner, A. (1910). Medical education in the United States and Canada (Sy Bulletin No. 4). Geliş tarihi gönderen The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching website: http://archive.carnegiefoundation.org/ pdfs/ elibrary/Carnegie_Flexner_Report.pdf
• Flexner, A. (2001). Is social work a profession? Research on Social Work Practice, 11(2), 152─165.
• Foote, N. (1953). The professionalization of labor in Detroit. American Journal of Sociology, 58(4), 371─380.
• Forsyth, P. B., & Danisiewicz, T. J. (1985). Toward a theory of professionalization. Work and Occupations, 12(1), 59-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888485012001004
• Fournier, V. (1999). The appeal to ‘professionalism’ as a disciplinary mechanism. The Sociological Review, 47(2), 280─307. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.00173
• Freidson, E. (1970). Profession of medicine: A study in the sociology of applied knowledge. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co.
• Freidson, E. (1986). Professional powers. A study of the institutionalization of knowledge. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
• Freidson, E. (1999). Theory of professionalism: Method and substance. International Review of Sociology, 9(1), 117129.
• Gadéa, C., & Demazière, D. (Ed.). (2009). Sociologie des groupes professionnels: Acquis récents et nouveaux défis. Paris: Découverte.
• Ganzeboom, H. B. G., De Graaf, P. M., & Treiman, D. J. (1992). A standard international socio-economic index of occupational status. Social Science Research, 21(1), 1─56. https://doi.org/10.1016/0049-089X(92)90017-B
• Goldthorpe, J. H. (1987). Social mobility and class structure in modern Britain. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Goldthorpe, J. H., & Hope, K. (1972). Occupational grading and occupational prestige. Social Science Information, 11(5), 17─73. https://doi.org/10.1177/053901847201100502
• Goode, W. (1957). Community within a community: The professions. American Sociological Review, 22(2), 669─688.
• Gökalp, Z. (2014). Türkçülüğün esasları. İstanbul: Ötüken Neşriyat.
• Göle, N. (1986). Mühendisler ve ideoloji: Öncü devrimcilerden yenilikçi seçkinlere. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
• Greenwood, E. (1957). Attributes of a profession. Social Work, 2(3), 45─55. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/2.3.45
• Habenstein, R. W. (1963). Critique of “profession” as a sociological category. The Sociological Quarterly, 4(4), 291300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1963.tb01594.x
• Hagan, J., Huxter, M., & Parker, P. (1988). Class structure and legal practice: Inequality and mobility among Toronto lawyers. Law & Society Review, 22(1), 9─56.
• Hagan, J., & Levi, R. (2005). Crimes of war and the force of law. Social Forces, 83(4), 1499─1534.
• Hall, R. (1979). The social construction of the professions. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 6(1), 124─126. https://doi.org/10.1177/009392857961006
• Halliday, T. C. (1987). Beyond monopoly: Lawyers, state crises, and professional empowerment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Hanlon, G. (1998). Professionalism as enterprise: Service class politics and the redefinition of professionalism. Sociology, 32(1), 43─63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038598032001004
• Hanlon, G. (1999). Lawyers, the state, and the market: Professionalism revisited. London: MacMillan Business.
• Haug, M. (1973). Deprofessionalization: An alternate hypothesis for the future. P. Halmos (Ed.), Professionalization and Social Change içinde (ss. 195-211). University of Keele.
• Haug, M. (1988). A re-examination of the hypothesis of physician deprofessionalization. The Milbank Quarterly, 66, 48. https://doi.org/10.2307/3349914
• Heinz, J. P., & Laumann, E. O. (1982). Chicago lawyers: The social structure of the bar. New York ve Chicago, IL: Russell Sage Foundation ve American Bar Foundation.
• Hughes, E. (1958). Men and their work. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
• Jarausch, K. H. (1990). The unfree professions. German lawyers, teachers and engineers, 1900-1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Jewel, L. A. (2008). Bourdieu and American legal education: How law schools reproduce social stratification and class hierarchy. Buffalo Law Review, 56(4), 1115─1224. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1138720
• Johnson, T. (1972a). Imperialism and the professions: Notes on the development of professional occupations in Britain’s colonies and the New States. The Sociological Review, 20(1_suppl), 281-309. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-954X.1972.tb03222.x
• Johnson, T. (1972b). Professions and power. London: Macmillan.
• Johnson, T. (1977). Professions in the class structure. R. Scase (Ed.), Industrial Society: Class, Cleavage and Control içinde (ss. 93-110). Allen & Unwin.
• Johnson, T. (1995). Governmentality and the institutionalization of expertise. T. Johnson, G. Larkin, & M. Saks (Ed.), Health Professions and the State in Europe içinde (ss. 7─24). Londra: Routledge.
• Kalleberg, A., & Vallas, S. (2017). Probing precarious work: Theory, research, and politics. Research in the Sociology of Work: C. 31. Precarious work: Causes, characteristics, and consequences içinde (ss. 1-30). https:// doi.org/10.1108/S0277-283320170000031017
• Karakaş, M. (2003). Türk polisinin mesleki profili. Afyon: Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Yayınları.
• Kasnakoğlu, Z., & Erdil, E. (2000). Meslek saygınlığı ve tercihleri. Ankara 1996. ODTÜ Gelişme Dergisi, 26(3-4), 575-603.
• Kaya, Y. (2008). Proletarianization with polarization: Industrialization, globalization, and social class in Turkey, 1980–2005. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 26(2), 161-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. rssm.2007.11.003
• Kemal, N. (2005). Osmanlı modernleşmesinin meseleleri: Bütün makaleleri 1 (N. Y. Aydoğdu & İ. Kara, Ed.). İstanbul: Dergâh Yayınları.
• Kemerlioğlu, E. (1973). Erzurum’da meslekler ve sosyal tabakalaşma (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum.
• Kıray, M. B. (2000). Ereğli. Ağır sanayiden önce bir sahil kasabası (3. bs). İstanbul: Bağlam Yayınları.
• Klegon, D. (1978). The sociology of professions: An emerging perspective. Work and Occupations, 5(3), 259-283.
• Kocka, J. (1990). “Bürgertum” and professions in the nineteenth century: Two alternative approaches. Içinde M. Burrage & R. Torstendahl (Ed.), Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions (ss. 62-74). Londra: SAGE Publications.
• Köse, A. H., & Öncü, A. (2000). Türkiye’de mühendis-mimarlar: Ekonomik sınıf konumları ve ideolojik oluşumları. Toplum ve Bilim, (85), 36─46.
• Kunitz, S. J. (1974). Professionalism and social control in the progressive era: The case of the Flexner report. Social Problems, 22(1), 16-27. https://doi.org/10.2307/799564
• Larkin, G. (1983). Occupational monopoly and modern medicine. London: Tavistock.
• Larson, M. S. (1977). The rise of professionalism: A sociological analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Larson, M. S. (1980). Proletarianization and educated labor. Theory and Society, 9(1), 131─175. Liljegren, A. (2012). Key metaphors in the sociology of professions: Occupations as hierarchies and landscapes. Comparative Sociology, 11(1), 88─112. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913312X621631
• Liljegren, A., & Saks, M. (Ed.). (2017). Professions and metaphors: Understanding professions in society. New York: Routledge.
• Lorey, I. (2015). State of insecurity: Government of the precarious (A. Derieg, Çev.). London New York: Verso.
• Macdonald, K. M. (1985). Social closure and occupational registration. Sociology, 19(4), 541─556. https://doi. org/10.1177/0038038585019004004
• Macdonald, K. M. (1995). The sociology of the professions. London: Sage.
• Malatesta, M. (1995). Society and the professions in Italy, 1860-1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Marshall, T. H. (1939). The recent history of professionalism in relation to social structure and social policy. The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 5(3), 325─340.
• McClelland, C. (2002). The German experience of professionalization: Modern learned professions and their organizations from the early nineteenth century to the Hitler era. Cambridge [et al.: Cambridge University Press.
• McKinlay, J. B., & Arches, J. (1985). Towards the proletarianization of physicians. International Journal of Health Services, 15(2), 161─195. https://doi.org/10.2190/JBMN-C0W6-9WFQ-Q5A6
• Merton, R. K., Reader, G., & Kendall, P. (Ed.). (1957). Student-physician: Introductory studies in the sociology of medical education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Millerson, G. (1964). The qualifying associations: A study in professionalization. Londra: Routledge.
• Mills, C. W. (1951). White collar: The American middle class. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Murphy, R. (1988). Social closure: The theory of monopolization and exclusion. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Muzio, D., Hodgson, D., Faulconbridge, J., Beaverstock, J., & Hall, S. (2011). Towards corporate professionalization: The case of project management, management consultancy and executive search. Current Sociology, 59(4), 443─464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392111402587
• Nakao, K., & Treas, J. (1994). Updating occupational prestige and socioeconomic scores: How the new measures measure up. Sociological Methodology, 24, 1-72.
• Nam, C. B., & Boyd, M. (2004). Occupational status in 2000; Over a century of census-based measurement. Population Research and Policy Review, 23(4), 327─358. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:POPU.0000040045.51228.34
• Navarro, V. (1977). Medicine under capitalism. New York: Prodist. Navarro, V. (1988). Professional dominance or proletarianization?: Neither. The Milbank Quarterly, 66, 57-75. https://doi.org/10.2307/3349915
• Neal, M. (2000). The professionalization of everyone? A comparative study of the development of the professions in the United Kingdom and Germany. European Sociological Review, 16(1), 9-26. https://doi.org/10.1093/ esr/16.1.9
• Noordegraaf, M. (2015). Hybrid professionalism and beyond: (New) Forms of public professionalism in changing organizational and societal contexts. Journal of Professions and Organization, 2(2), 187─206. https://doi. org/10.1093/jpo/jov002
• Oppenheimer, M. (1972). The proletarianization of the professional. The Sociological Review, 20(1_suppl), 213-227. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1972.tb03218.x
• Özkurt, C. (2018). 1980 sonrası çalışma hayatına başlayan bazı meslek mensuplarının sosyolojik açıdan karşılaştırmalı analizi (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Maltepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Parkin, F. (1979). Marxism and class theory: A bourgeois critique. Londra: Tavistock.
• Parry, N., & Parry, J. (1976). The rise of the medical profession. Londra: Croom Helm.
• Parsons, T. (1939). The professions and social structure. Social Forces, 17(4), 457─467.
• Parsons, T. (1964). A sociologist looks at the legal profession. Essays in Sociological Theory içinde (ss. 370─385). Illinois: Free Press.
• Parsons, T. (2005). Social structure and dynamic process: The case of modern medical practice. The social system içinde (ss. 288─322). Londra: Routledge.
• Pavalko, R. M. (1988). Sociology of occupations and professions (2. bs). Ithaca, Ill.: Peacock.
• Pickard, S. (2010). The role of governmentality in the establishment, maintenance and demise of professional jurisdictions: The case of geriatric medicine: Governmentality and geriatric medicine. Sociology of Health & Illness, 32(7), 1072─1086. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2010.01256.x
• Poulantzas, N. (1975). Classes in contemporary capitalism. Londra: New Left Books. Reed, M. I. (1996). Expert power and control in late modernity: An empirical review and theoretical synthesis. Organization Studies, 17(4), 573─597. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069601700402
• Ritzer, G. (1975). Professionalization, bureaucratization and rationalization: The views of Max Weber. Social Forces, 53(4), 627─634. https://doi.org/10.2307/2576478
• Ritzer, G., & Walczak, D. (1988). Rationalization and the deprofessionalization of physicians. Social Forces, 67(1), 1─22. https://doi.org/10.2307/2579098
• Rogowski, R. (1995). German corporate lawyers: Social closure in autopoietic perspective. Y. Dezalay & D. Sugarman (Ed.), Professional Competition and Professional Power: Lawyers, Accountants and the Social Construction of Markets içinde (ss. 114─135). Londra: Routledge.
• Roth, J. A. (1974). Professionalism: The sociologist’s decoy. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 1(1), 6─23. https:// doi.org/10.1177/073088847400100102
• Rothman, R. A. (1984). Deprofessionalization: The case of law in America. Work and Occupations, 11(2), 183─206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888484011002004
• Saks, M. (1983). Removing the blinkers? A critique of recent contributions to the sociology of professions. The Sociological Review, 31(1), 3─21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1983.tb00677.x
• Saks, M. (2015). The professions, state and the market: Medicine in Britain, the United States and Russia (1. bs). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315727493
• Saks, M. (2016). A review of theories of professions, organizations and society: The case for neo-Weberianism, neoinstitutionalism and eclecticism. Journal of Professions and Organization, 3(2), 170─187. https://doi. org/10.1093/jpo/jow005
• Saks, M., & Adams, T. L. (2019). Neo-Weberianism, professional formation and the state: Inside the black box. Professions and Professionalism, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.7577/pp.3190
• Sander, R. H., & Williams, E. D. (1989). Why are there so many lawyers? Perspectives on a turbulent market. Law & Social Inquiry, 14(3), 431─479.
• Schinkel, W., & Noordegraaf, M. (2011). Professionalism as symbolic capital: Materials for a Bourdieusian theory of professionalism. Comparative Sociology, 10(1), 67─96. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913310X514083
• Sciulli, D. (2005). Continental sociology of professions today: Conceptual contributions. Current Sociology, 53(6), 915─942. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392105057155
• Sciulli, D. (2007). Paris Visual Académie as first prototype profession: Rethinking the sociology of professions. Theory, Culture & Society, 24(1), 35─59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276407071567
• Sennett, R. (2010). Karakter aşınması: Yeni kapitalizmde işin kişilik üzerindeki etkileri (B. Yıldırım, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
• Smigel, E. O. (1954). Trends in occupational sociology in the United States: A survey of postwar research. American Sociological Review, 19(4), 398─404.
• Smith, A. (2007). An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (J. B. Wight, Ed.). Petersfield: Harriman House.
• Starr, P. (1982). The social transformation of American medicine: The rise of a sovereign profession and the making of a vast industry. Cambridge: Basic Books.
• Styhre, A. (2017). Precarious professional work: Entrepreneurialism, risk and economic compensation in the knowledge economy. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Suddaby, R., & Muzio, D. (2015). Theoretical perspectives of the professions. L. Empson, D. Muzio, J. Broschak, & B. Hinings (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Professional Service Firms içinde (C. 1, ss. 25─47). https://doi. org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199682393.013.2
• Sunar, L. (2018). Değişim sosyolojisi. Kavramlar, kuramlar ve yaklaşımlar. Ankara: Nobel Akademik. Sunar, L., & Kaya, Y. (2018). Türkiye’de değişen sosyo-ekonomik yapı içerisinde meslekler. Türkiye’de Toplumsal Tabakalaşma ve Eşitsizlik içinde (2. bs, C. 2, ss. 3─52). Ankara: Nobel Akademik.
• Susskind, R. E., & Susskind, D. (2015). The future of the professions: How technology will transform the work of human experts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Şeref, E. (2014). Emergent distinctions in the juridical field: The case of “plaza attorneys” in Turkey (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Sabancı Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Tawney, R. H. (1920). The acquisitive society. New York: Harcourt, Brace And Howe. Terzioğlu, A. (1998). Turkish medical doctors: Historical experience and self narratives (Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
• Toren, N. (1975). Deprofessionalization and its sources: A preliminary analysis. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 2(4), 323─337. https://doi.org/10.1177/073088847500200402
• Vatansever, A., & Yalçın, M. G. (2015). “Ne ders olsa veririz”: Akademisyenin vasıfsız işçiye dönüşümü (3. bs). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• Villegas, M. G. (2009). Champ juridique et sciences sociales en France et aux Etats-Unis. L’Année sociologique, 1(59), 29-62. https://doi.org/10.3917/anso.091.0029
• Vollmer, H., & Mills, D. (Ed.). (1966). Professionalization. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
• Waring, J., & Bishop, S. (2013). Mcdonaldization or commercial re-stratification: Corporatization and the multimodal organisation of English doctors. Social Science & Medicine, 82, 147─155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. socscimed.2012.12.023
• Warner, W. L. (1949). Social class in America. Chicago: Science Research Associates.
• Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society. An outline of interpretive sociology (G. Roth & C. Wittich, Ed.). Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Weber, M. (2004). The vocation lectures: “Science as a vocation”, “Politics as a vocation” (D. Owen & T. B. Strong, Ed.; R. Livingstone, Çev.). Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company.
• Weeden, K. A. (2002). Why do some occupations pay more than others? Social closure and earnings inequality in the United States. American Journal of Sociology, 108(1), 55─101.
• Wilensky, H. (1964). The professionalization of everyone? American Journal of Sociology, 70(2), 137─158.
• Willemez, L. (2015). Un champ mis à l’épreuve. Structure et propriétés du champ juridique dans la France contemporaine. Droit et société, 1(89), 129─149. https://doi.org/10.3917/drs.089.0129
• Wright, E. O. (1980). Class and occupation. Theory and Society, 9(1), 177─214.
• Wright, E. O. (2000). Class counts: Student edition. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Wright, E. O. (Ed.). (2005). Approaches to class analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.