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BATI AFRİKA'DA ŞİDDETLİ AŞIRILIĞIN YÜKSELEN EĞİLİMLERİ: BÖLGESEL GÜVENLİĞE BİR TEHDİT

Year 2022, Volume: 2 Issue: 2, 111 - 131, 30.12.2022

Abstract

The West African sub-region has witnessed an upsurge in the activities of violent extremist groups in recent years. Many extremist groups such as Boko Haram in Nigeria, Ansarul Islam in Burkina Faso and Mali, Jama'a Nusrat ul-Islam wa al-Muslimin' in parts of West Africa and the Maghreb, and the Islamic State's West Africa Province, among others, have taken undue advantage of the numerous security challenges in the region to launch persistent attacks on security targets and civilians. Burkina Faso and Mali, in particular, are gradually becoming the focal points of violent activities and terrorist attacks in West Africa that have claimed the lives of security personnel and many civilians. Available data indicates that between January and March 2020, there were about 85 incidents of extremist attacks with over 438 associated deaths in Burkina Faso alone. These attacks and the resultant effects have spillover consequences for other West African states, such as Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Niger, and Togo. The Economic Community of West African States, the sub-regional body, has formulated different strategies, with the support of the international community, to nip this menace in the bud. While these strategies, without a doubt, have helped reduce the effects of the violent attacks, the trends of violent extremism and terrorist insurgency are still rising in some Western African countries. Therefore, this paper explains the increasing trends of violent extremism in West Africa and outlines the factors influencing extremism in the sub-region. The discussion also considers the responses of individual member states in the sub-region and suggests how to curb the increasing threat of violent extremism in the sub-region.

References

  • Abbas, T. (2019). The Nature and Extent of Countering Violent Extremism in the United Kingdom. In von Hlatky, S. (ed.), Countering Violent Extremism and Terrorism: Assessing Domestic and International Strategies (Vol. 8, pp. 127–141). McGill-Queen’s University Press.
  • Adelaja, A. O., Labo, A. and Penar, E. (2018). “Public Opinion on the Root Causes of Terrorism and Objectives of Terrorists: A Boko Haram Case Study.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(3), 35–49.
  • Akinola, O. (2015). Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria: Between Islamic Fundamentalism, Politics, and Poverty. African Security, 8(1), 1–29.
  • Ambrozik, C. (2019). “Countering Violent Extremism Globally: A New Global CVE Dataset.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(5), 102–111.
  • Amnesty International (April 14, 2015). Nigeria: Abducted women and girls forced to join Boko Haram attacks.
  • Barkindo, A. (2020). “The Sahel: A New Theatre for Global Jihadist Groups?” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 21–26.
  • Basit, A. (2021). “Conspiracy Theories and Violent Extremism: Similarities, Differences and the Implications.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 13(3), 1–9.
  • Bergin, A. and Hately, S. (2015). Security through aid: Countering violent extremism and terrorism with Australia’s aid program. Australian Strategic Policy Institute.
  • Bisson, L., Cottyn, I., de Bruijne, K., and Molenaar, F. (2021). Insecurity in Burkina Faso: a pastoral perspective. In Between hope and despair: Pastoralist adaptation in Burkina Faso (pp. 11–13). Clingendael Institute.
  • Bjørgo, T. and Ravndal, J. A. (2019). Extreme-Right Violence and Terrorism: Concepts, Patterns, and Responses. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Boyle, M. J. (2008). “The War on Terror in American Grand Strategy.” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 84(2), 191–209.
  • Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation. (2013). Recommendations for Action by Regional and International Bodies. In Countering Violent Extremism and Promoting Community Engagement in West Africa and the Sahel: An Action Agenda (pp. 10–15). Global Center on Cooperative Security.
  • Chauzal, G. and van Damme, T. (2015). Rebellion and fragmentation in northern Mali. In The roots of Mali’s conflict: Moving beyond the 2012 crisis (pp. 30–42). Clingendael Institute.
  • Coleman, J., Dal Santo, E., Demuynck, M., Vellage, L. and Vermeersch, E. (2021). Dynamics of Support and Engagement: Understanding Malian Youths’ Attitudes towards Violent Extremism. Report, The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism–The Hague.
  • Cooke, J. G., Sanderson, T. M., Johnson, J. C. and Hubner, B. (2016). The Context: Corruption, Fragility, and Hardship in the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin. In Militancy and the Arc of Instability: Violent Extremism in the Sahel (pp. 4–14). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
  • Demuynck, M. (2021). Civilians on the Front Lines of (Counter-) Terrorism: Lessons from the Volunteers for the Defence of the Homeland in Burkina Faso, Policy Brief, The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Dim, E. E. (2017). “An Integrated Theoretical Approach to the Persistence of Boko Haram Violent Extremism in Nigeria.” Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 12(2), 36–50.
  • Engels, B., Campbell, H. and Fall, A. S. (2018). Social Movement Struggles and Political Transition in Burkina Faso. In A. Murrey (ed.), A Certain Amount of Madness: The Life, Politics and Legacies of Thomas Sankara (pp. 255–268). Pluto Press.
  • European Union Report, (2020). Preventing Electoral Violence and Providing Security to the Northern Border Regions of Ghana (NORPREVSEC) Programme. CRIS number: GH/FED/042-538, Financed under the 11th European Development Fund (EDF).
  • Faleg, G. (2020). What if … Burkina Faso Defeated Violent Extremism? In F. Gaub (Ed.), WHAT IF …?: 14 futures for 2024 (pp. 62–66). European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS).
  • Frimpong, O. B. (2020). Violent Extremism in West Africa: Are Current Responses Enough? Southern Voices Network for Peacebuilding.
  • Institute for Economics and Peace. (2014). Global Terrorism Index. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Terrorism%20Index%20Report%202014_0.pdf.
  • International Crisis Group. (2021). Crisis Watch: Burkina Faso. https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/database?location%5B%5D=21&date_range=custom&from_month=06&from_ year=2021&to_month=06&to_year=2021. Jamieson, A. and Flint, J. (2015). Radicalisation and Terrorism: A Teacher’s Handbook for Addressing Extremism, Brilliant Publications.
  • Joseph, R. A. (1988). Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria: The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kometer, M. W. (2004). Nature of Terrorism. In The New Terrorism: The Nature of the War on Terrorism (pp. 5–17). Air University Press.
  • Lapegna, A. (2021). Instability in the Sahel region and security concerns in Burkina Faso. Aspenia Online.
  • Lecocq, B. and Klute, G. (2013). Tuareg separatism in Mali. International Journal, 68(3), 424–434.
  • Lindborg, N. (2016). The Causes and Consequences of Violent Extremism and the Role of Foreign Assistance: Testimony Submitted for the Record Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs. Congressional Testimony. https://www.usip.org/publications/2016/04/causes-and-consequences-violent-extremism-and-role-foreign-assistance.
  • Living Safe Together (n.d.). “What is violent extremism?” https://www.livingsafetogether.gov.au/Documents/what-is-violent-extremism.PDF.
  • Lord, K. M., Nagl, J. A. and Rosen, S. D. (2009). Beyond Bullets: A Pragmatic Strategy to Combat Violent Islamist Extremism. Center for a New American Security.
  • Le Roux, P. (2019). Responding to the Rise in Violent Extremism in the Sahel. Africa Center for Strategic Studies.
  • Mabera, F., Dlamini, K. and Makamase, M. (2020). Growing militancy in the Sahel and beyond. In P. Mthembu (Ed.), SPOTLIGHT ON AFRICA: Mapping geopolitical trends for Quarter One 2020 (pp. 3–5). Institute for Global Dialogue. Mantzikos, I. (2014). Boko Haram Attacks in Nigeria and Neighbouring Countries: A Chronology of Attacks. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(6), 63–81.
  • Mathieu, B. (2017). “Armed Rebellion, Violent Extremism, and the Challenges of International Intervention in Mali.” African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review, 7(2), 60–84.
  • Melly, P. (2022). Burkina Faso coup: Return of the military strongmen to West Africa. B.B.C. News.
  • Moderan, O. (2021). Proliferation of Armed Non-State Actors in the Sahel: Evidence of State Failure? Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) Commentary.
  • Nasser-Eddine, M., Garnham, B., Agostino, K. and Caluya, G. (2011). Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) Literature Review. Counter Terrorism and Security Technology Centre. Defence, Science and Technology Organisation, 105.
  • Nsaibia, H. (2021). The Sahel: Insurgency and fragile politics at the center of an unabated crisis. Mid-Year Update: 10 conflicts to worry about in 2021, ACLED, 30-33.
  • Osei, A. (2018). “Elite Theory and Political Transitions: Networks of Power in Ghana and Togo.” Comparative Politics, 51(1), 21–40.
  • Pearson, E. and Zenn, J. (2021). A Gender Lens, Terrorism and Boko Haram. In Boko Haram, the Islamic State, and the Surge in Female Abductions in Southeastern Niger (pp. 5–8). International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Price, E. (2014). “Bibliography: (Countering) Violent Extremism and Terrorism.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(2), 92–102.
  • Raineri, L. (2018). If victims become perpetrators: factors contributing to vulnerability and resilience to violent extremism in the central Sahel. International Alert.
  • RAND Annual Report. (2008). Setting Politics Aside. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/corporate_pubs/CP1-2008.html.
  • Schmid, A. P. (2017). Moderate Muslims and Islamist Terrorism: Between Denial and Resistance. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Schmid, A. P. (2014). Violent and Non-Violent Extremism: Two Sides of the Same Coin? International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Schuurman, Bart (2019). Topics in terrorism research: reviewing trends and gaps, 2007-2016. Critical Studies on Terrorism, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2019.1579777.
  • Sheikh, M. K., & Svensson, I. (2022). “Countering Violent Extremism or Resolving Conflicts? Bridging Micro- and Macro Perspectives on Countering Jihad.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 16(1), 60–70.
  • Snyder, J. N., Jadallah, A. A.-H., Chatterjee, S., Krekó, P. and Mooney, L. (2018). Unintended Consequences: Security and Civil Society in Burkina Faso. In L. Baydas & S. N. Green (eds.), COUNTERTERRORISM MEASURES AND CIVIL SOCIETY: Changing the Will, Finding the Way (pp. 35–46). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
  • Sodipo, M. O. (2013). Mitigating Radicalism in Northern Nigeria. The Africa Center for Strategic Studies.
  • Sollazzo, R. and Nowak, M. (2020). TRI-BORDER TRANSIT: Trafficking and Smuggling in the Burkina Faso–Côte d’Ivoire–Mali Region. Small Arms Survey.
  • Subedi, D. and Jenkins, B. (2016). “Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Engaging Peacebuilding and Development Actors.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(10), 13–19.
  • Thrall, A. T. and Goepner, E. (2017). Step Back: Lessons for U.S. Foreign Policy from the Failed War on Terror. Cato Institute.
  • UNESCO. (2017). Preventing Violent Extremism through Education: A Guide for Policy-Makers
  • USAID. (2021). Countering Violent Extremism in West Africa. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/USAID%20CVE%20in%20A%2010.25.16.pdf.
  • USAID (2009). Guide to the Drivers of Extremism. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadt978.pdf.
  • Venturi, B. (2019). An EU Integrated Approach in the Sahel: The Role for Governance. Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).
  • Wickham, J. A. (2002). “September 11 and America’s War on Terrorism: A New Manifest Destiny?” American Indian Quarterly, 26(1), 116–144.
  • Wilhelmsen, J. and Youngman, M. (2020). “Violent Mobilization and Non-Mobilization in the North Caucasus.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 14(2), 2–10.
  • Wolfe, R., Blair, T., Runde, D. F., Betancourt, E., Bisca, P. M., Diamond, T., El-Badawy, E., Greer, R., Lavinal, O. and Wolfe, R. (2019). Can We Measure Success?: Monitoring and Evaluating Countering Violent Extremism Programs. In E. K. Yayboke and S. R. Ramanujam (eds.), Sharpening Our Efforts: The Role of International Development in Countering Violent Extremism (pp. 11–17). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).

THE RISING TRENDS OF VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN WEST AFRICA: A THREAT TO REGIONAL SECURITY

Year 2022, Volume: 2 Issue: 2, 111 - 131, 30.12.2022

Abstract

The West African sub-region has witnessed an upsurge in the activities of violent extremist groups in recent years. Many extremist groups such as Boko Haram in Nigeria, Ansarul Islam in Burkina Faso and Mali, Jama'a Nusrat ul-Islam wa al-Muslimin' in parts of West Africa and the Maghreb, and the Islamic State's West Africa Province, among others, have taken undue advantage of the numerous security challenges in the region to launch persistent attacks on security targets and civilians. Burkina Faso and Mali, in particular, are gradually becoming the focal points of violent activities and terrorist attacks in West Africa that have claimed the lives of security personnel and many civilians. Available data indicates that between January and March 2020, there were about 85 incidents of extremist attacks with over 438 associated deaths in Burkina Faso alone. These attacks and the resultant effects have spillover consequences for other West African states, such as Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Niger, and Togo. The Economic Community of West African States, the sub-regional body, has formulated different strategies, with the support of the international community, to nip this menace in the bud. While these strategies, without a doubt, have helped reduce the effects of the violent attacks, the trends of violent extremism and terrorist insurgency are still rising in some Western African countries. Therefore, this paper explains the increasing trends of violent extremism in West Africa and outlines the factors influencing extremism in the sub-region. The discussion also considers the responses of individual member states in the sub-region and suggests how to curb the increasing threat of violent extremism in the sub-region.

References

  • Abbas, T. (2019). The Nature and Extent of Countering Violent Extremism in the United Kingdom. In von Hlatky, S. (ed.), Countering Violent Extremism and Terrorism: Assessing Domestic and International Strategies (Vol. 8, pp. 127–141). McGill-Queen’s University Press.
  • Adelaja, A. O., Labo, A. and Penar, E. (2018). “Public Opinion on the Root Causes of Terrorism and Objectives of Terrorists: A Boko Haram Case Study.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(3), 35–49.
  • Akinola, O. (2015). Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria: Between Islamic Fundamentalism, Politics, and Poverty. African Security, 8(1), 1–29.
  • Ambrozik, C. (2019). “Countering Violent Extremism Globally: A New Global CVE Dataset.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(5), 102–111.
  • Amnesty International (April 14, 2015). Nigeria: Abducted women and girls forced to join Boko Haram attacks.
  • Barkindo, A. (2020). “The Sahel: A New Theatre for Global Jihadist Groups?” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 21–26.
  • Basit, A. (2021). “Conspiracy Theories and Violent Extremism: Similarities, Differences and the Implications.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 13(3), 1–9.
  • Bergin, A. and Hately, S. (2015). Security through aid: Countering violent extremism and terrorism with Australia’s aid program. Australian Strategic Policy Institute.
  • Bisson, L., Cottyn, I., de Bruijne, K., and Molenaar, F. (2021). Insecurity in Burkina Faso: a pastoral perspective. In Between hope and despair: Pastoralist adaptation in Burkina Faso (pp. 11–13). Clingendael Institute.
  • Bjørgo, T. and Ravndal, J. A. (2019). Extreme-Right Violence and Terrorism: Concepts, Patterns, and Responses. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Boyle, M. J. (2008). “The War on Terror in American Grand Strategy.” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 84(2), 191–209.
  • Center on Global Counterterrorism Cooperation. (2013). Recommendations for Action by Regional and International Bodies. In Countering Violent Extremism and Promoting Community Engagement in West Africa and the Sahel: An Action Agenda (pp. 10–15). Global Center on Cooperative Security.
  • Chauzal, G. and van Damme, T. (2015). Rebellion and fragmentation in northern Mali. In The roots of Mali’s conflict: Moving beyond the 2012 crisis (pp. 30–42). Clingendael Institute.
  • Coleman, J., Dal Santo, E., Demuynck, M., Vellage, L. and Vermeersch, E. (2021). Dynamics of Support and Engagement: Understanding Malian Youths’ Attitudes towards Violent Extremism. Report, The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism–The Hague.
  • Cooke, J. G., Sanderson, T. M., Johnson, J. C. and Hubner, B. (2016). The Context: Corruption, Fragility, and Hardship in the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin. In Militancy and the Arc of Instability: Violent Extremism in the Sahel (pp. 4–14). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
  • Demuynck, M. (2021). Civilians on the Front Lines of (Counter-) Terrorism: Lessons from the Volunteers for the Defence of the Homeland in Burkina Faso, Policy Brief, The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Dim, E. E. (2017). “An Integrated Theoretical Approach to the Persistence of Boko Haram Violent Extremism in Nigeria.” Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 12(2), 36–50.
  • Engels, B., Campbell, H. and Fall, A. S. (2018). Social Movement Struggles and Political Transition in Burkina Faso. In A. Murrey (ed.), A Certain Amount of Madness: The Life, Politics and Legacies of Thomas Sankara (pp. 255–268). Pluto Press.
  • European Union Report, (2020). Preventing Electoral Violence and Providing Security to the Northern Border Regions of Ghana (NORPREVSEC) Programme. CRIS number: GH/FED/042-538, Financed under the 11th European Development Fund (EDF).
  • Faleg, G. (2020). What if … Burkina Faso Defeated Violent Extremism? In F. Gaub (Ed.), WHAT IF …?: 14 futures for 2024 (pp. 62–66). European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS).
  • Frimpong, O. B. (2020). Violent Extremism in West Africa: Are Current Responses Enough? Southern Voices Network for Peacebuilding.
  • Institute for Economics and Peace. (2014). Global Terrorism Index. http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/Global%20Terrorism%20Index%20Report%202014_0.pdf.
  • International Crisis Group. (2021). Crisis Watch: Burkina Faso. https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/database?location%5B%5D=21&date_range=custom&from_month=06&from_ year=2021&to_month=06&to_year=2021. Jamieson, A. and Flint, J. (2015). Radicalisation and Terrorism: A Teacher’s Handbook for Addressing Extremism, Brilliant Publications.
  • Joseph, R. A. (1988). Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria: The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kometer, M. W. (2004). Nature of Terrorism. In The New Terrorism: The Nature of the War on Terrorism (pp. 5–17). Air University Press.
  • Lapegna, A. (2021). Instability in the Sahel region and security concerns in Burkina Faso. Aspenia Online.
  • Lecocq, B. and Klute, G. (2013). Tuareg separatism in Mali. International Journal, 68(3), 424–434.
  • Lindborg, N. (2016). The Causes and Consequences of Violent Extremism and the Role of Foreign Assistance: Testimony Submitted for the Record Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs. Congressional Testimony. https://www.usip.org/publications/2016/04/causes-and-consequences-violent-extremism-and-role-foreign-assistance.
  • Living Safe Together (n.d.). “What is violent extremism?” https://www.livingsafetogether.gov.au/Documents/what-is-violent-extremism.PDF.
  • Lord, K. M., Nagl, J. A. and Rosen, S. D. (2009). Beyond Bullets: A Pragmatic Strategy to Combat Violent Islamist Extremism. Center for a New American Security.
  • Le Roux, P. (2019). Responding to the Rise in Violent Extremism in the Sahel. Africa Center for Strategic Studies.
  • Mabera, F., Dlamini, K. and Makamase, M. (2020). Growing militancy in the Sahel and beyond. In P. Mthembu (Ed.), SPOTLIGHT ON AFRICA: Mapping geopolitical trends for Quarter One 2020 (pp. 3–5). Institute for Global Dialogue. Mantzikos, I. (2014). Boko Haram Attacks in Nigeria and Neighbouring Countries: A Chronology of Attacks. Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(6), 63–81.
  • Mathieu, B. (2017). “Armed Rebellion, Violent Extremism, and the Challenges of International Intervention in Mali.” African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review, 7(2), 60–84.
  • Melly, P. (2022). Burkina Faso coup: Return of the military strongmen to West Africa. B.B.C. News.
  • Moderan, O. (2021). Proliferation of Armed Non-State Actors in the Sahel: Evidence of State Failure? Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) Commentary.
  • Nasser-Eddine, M., Garnham, B., Agostino, K. and Caluya, G. (2011). Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) Literature Review. Counter Terrorism and Security Technology Centre. Defence, Science and Technology Organisation, 105.
  • Nsaibia, H. (2021). The Sahel: Insurgency and fragile politics at the center of an unabated crisis. Mid-Year Update: 10 conflicts to worry about in 2021, ACLED, 30-33.
  • Osei, A. (2018). “Elite Theory and Political Transitions: Networks of Power in Ghana and Togo.” Comparative Politics, 51(1), 21–40.
  • Pearson, E. and Zenn, J. (2021). A Gender Lens, Terrorism and Boko Haram. In Boko Haram, the Islamic State, and the Surge in Female Abductions in Southeastern Niger (pp. 5–8). International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Price, E. (2014). “Bibliography: (Countering) Violent Extremism and Terrorism.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 8(2), 92–102.
  • Raineri, L. (2018). If victims become perpetrators: factors contributing to vulnerability and resilience to violent extremism in the central Sahel. International Alert.
  • RAND Annual Report. (2008). Setting Politics Aside. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/corporate_pubs/CP1-2008.html.
  • Schmid, A. P. (2017). Moderate Muslims and Islamist Terrorism: Between Denial and Resistance. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism.
  • Schmid, A. P. (2014). Violent and Non-Violent Extremism: Two Sides of the Same Coin? International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Schuurman, Bart (2019). Topics in terrorism research: reviewing trends and gaps, 2007-2016. Critical Studies on Terrorism, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2019.1579777.
  • Sheikh, M. K., & Svensson, I. (2022). “Countering Violent Extremism or Resolving Conflicts? Bridging Micro- and Macro Perspectives on Countering Jihad.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 16(1), 60–70.
  • Snyder, J. N., Jadallah, A. A.-H., Chatterjee, S., Krekó, P. and Mooney, L. (2018). Unintended Consequences: Security and Civil Society in Burkina Faso. In L. Baydas & S. N. Green (eds.), COUNTERTERRORISM MEASURES AND CIVIL SOCIETY: Changing the Will, Finding the Way (pp. 35–46). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
  • Sodipo, M. O. (2013). Mitigating Radicalism in Northern Nigeria. The Africa Center for Strategic Studies.
  • Sollazzo, R. and Nowak, M. (2020). TRI-BORDER TRANSIT: Trafficking and Smuggling in the Burkina Faso–Côte d’Ivoire–Mali Region. Small Arms Survey.
  • Subedi, D. and Jenkins, B. (2016). “Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Engaging Peacebuilding and Development Actors.” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 8(10), 13–19.
  • Thrall, A. T. and Goepner, E. (2017). Step Back: Lessons for U.S. Foreign Policy from the Failed War on Terror. Cato Institute.
  • UNESCO. (2017). Preventing Violent Extremism through Education: A Guide for Policy-Makers
  • USAID. (2021). Countering Violent Extremism in West Africa. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/USAID%20CVE%20in%20A%2010.25.16.pdf.
  • USAID (2009). Guide to the Drivers of Extremism. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadt978.pdf.
  • Venturi, B. (2019). An EU Integrated Approach in the Sahel: The Role for Governance. Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).
  • Wickham, J. A. (2002). “September 11 and America’s War on Terrorism: A New Manifest Destiny?” American Indian Quarterly, 26(1), 116–144.
  • Wilhelmsen, J. and Youngman, M. (2020). “Violent Mobilization and Non-Mobilization in the North Caucasus.” Perspectives on Terrorism, 14(2), 2–10.
  • Wolfe, R., Blair, T., Runde, D. F., Betancourt, E., Bisca, P. M., Diamond, T., El-Badawy, E., Greer, R., Lavinal, O. and Wolfe, R. (2019). Can We Measure Success?: Monitoring and Evaluating Countering Violent Extremism Programs. In E. K. Yayboke and S. R. Ramanujam (eds.), Sharpening Our Efforts: The Role of International Development in Countering Violent Extremism (pp. 11–17). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
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Details

Primary Language English
Subjects International Relations
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Abdallah Imam Haruna 0000-0003-0767-0675

Publication Date December 30, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 2 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Haruna, A. I. (2022). THE RISING TRENDS OF VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN WEST AFRICA: A THREAT TO REGIONAL SECURITY. Uluslararası İlişkiler Çalışmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 111-131.

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