Research Article
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Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 71 - 80

Hacı Murat Yılmaz , Murat Yakar

https://doi.org/10.53093/mephoj.1797385

Abstract

The increasing use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in mapping and surveying has necessitated a comprehensive understanding of their vertical accuracy performance. The use of UAVs in mapping projects has rapidly expanded due to their efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and high spatial resolution. Vertical accuracy, a critical criterion for UAV-derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and orthophotos, influences their use in applications such as cadastral map production, environmental monitoring and infrastructure inspection, and digital elevation model production. Factors affecting vertical accuracy include sensor resolution, ground control point (GCP) distribution, and flight altitude. This study provides valuable information for professional UAV practitioners seeking to optimize vertical accuracy in photogrammetric projects and photogrammetric workflows. This article examines recent developments in vertical accuracy studies in UAV photogrammetry worldwide, analyzing the factors affecting accuracy, survey methodologies, and comparative performance in different geographic regions. A comprehensive table combining vertical Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values from multiple studies highlights trends and challenges. Recommendations for optimizing vertical accuracy in UAV mapping are also provided.

Keywords

UAV Vertical Accuracy Photogrammetry DEM

Ethical Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  • Yılmaz, H. M., Karabörk, H., & Yakar, M. (2000). Yersel fotogrametrinin kullanım alanları. Niğde Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 1.
  • Yakar, M., & Yilmaz, H. M. (2008). Using in volume computing of digital close range photogrammetry. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37, B3b.
  • Unal, M., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2004, July). Discontinuity surface roughness measurement techniques and the evaluation of digital photogrammetric method. In Proceedings of the 20th international congress for photogrammetry and remote sensing, ISPRS (Vol. 1103, p. 1108).
  • Ünel, F. B., Kuşak, L., Çelik, M., Alptekin, A., & Yakar, M. (2020). Kıyı çizgisinin belirlenerek mülkiyet durumunun incelenmesi. Türkiye Arazi Yönetimi Dergisi, 2(1), 33-40.
  • Yakar, M., Orhan, O., Ulvi, A., Yiğit, A. Y., & Yüzer, M. M. (2015). Sahip Ata Külliyesi Rölöve Örneği. TMMOB Harita ve Kadastro Mühendisleri Odası, 10.
  • Mohammed, O., & Yakar, M. (2016). Yersel fotogrametrik yöntem ile ibadethanelerin modellenmesi. Selcuk University Journal of Engineering Sciences, 15(2), 85-95.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., & Yakar, M. (2006). Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) Tarama Sistemi. Yapı Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 2(2), 23-33..
  • Yakar, M., & Kocaman, E. (2018). Kayseri-Sahabiye Medresesi 3-boyutlu modelleme çalışması ve animasyonu. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 10(1), 133-138.
  • Pulat, F., Yakar, M., & Ulvi, A. (2022). Three-dimensional modeling of the Kubbe-i Hasiye Shrine with terrestrial photogrammetric method. Cultural Heritage and Science, 3(1), 6-11.
  • Yakar, M., & Doğan, Y. (2017). Mersin Silifke Mezgit Kale Anıt Mezarı fotogrametrik rölöve alımı ve üç boyutlu modelleme çalışması. Geomatik, 2(1), 11-17.
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Investigation of Molla Hari (Halil) Süleyman Paşa Mosque’s material deteriorations. Advanced Engineering Days (AED), 4, 55-57.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2022). İnsansız Hava Araçlarının Kullanım Alanları ve Sensör Tipleri. Türkiye İnsansız Hava Araçları Dergisi, 4(2), 73-100.
  • Yakar, M., Murat Yılmaz, H., Yıldız, F., Zeybek, M., Şentürk, H., & Çelik, H. (2010). Silifke-Mersin Bölgesinde Roma Dönemi Eserlerinin 3 Boyutlu Modelleme Çalışması ve Animasyonu. Jeodezi ve Jeoinformasyon Dergisi, (101).
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., Karabacak, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Detection and documentation of stone material deterioration in historical masonry buildings using UAV photogrammetry: A case study of Mersin Sarisih Inn. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, 4(2), 53-61.
  • Yakar, M., Uysal, M., Toprak, A. S., & Polat, N. (2013). 3D modeling of historical doger caravansaries by digital photogrammetry. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 40, 695-698.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., Karabörk, H., & Yakar, M. (2000). Yersel fotogrametrinin kullanım alanları. Niğde Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 1.
  • Yakar, M., Yildiz, F., Alyilmaz, C., & Yilmaz, H. M. (2009). Photogrammetric study for Sircali Medrese Door. 9-th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2009, 879-884.
  • Kahveci, M., & Can, N. (2017). İnsansiz hava araçlari: tarİhçesİ, tanimi, dünyada ve türkİye'dekİ yasal durumu. Selçuk Üniversitesi Mühendislik, Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi, 5(4), 511-535.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2023). İnsansız Hava Araçları ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamaları. Türkiye Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Dergisi, 5(1), 20-33.
  • Tükenmez F & Yakar M (2023). Production of road maps in highway projects by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Advanced Engineering Days (AED), Mersin, Türkiye, 6, 94-96.
  • Yakar, M., Yalçın, M., Demirel, N., & Özdemir, M. (2023). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV photogrammetric surveys using RTK and GCP methods. Remote Sensing Applications, 15(4), 112–130.
  • Yakar, M., Alyılmaz, C., Telci, A., Baygul, E., Çolak, S., Aydın, M., ... & Yılmaz, H. M. (2009). 3D laser scanning and photogrammmetric measurement of Akhan caravansaray.
  • Çallı, S., Kucuk, O., & Bayrak, M. (2023). Effect of RTK and non-RTK UAV systems on vertical accuracy: A case study. Journal of Surveying Engineering, 149(1), 04022052.
  • Elaksher, H., El-Gohary, M., & El-Rabbany, A. (2023). Evaluation of UAV-based photogrammetric accuracy using RTK and GCPs. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 182, 1–14.
  • Aktan, A., Çolak, İ., & Yılmaz, S. (2022). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using SenseFly eBeeX. Survey Review, 54(399), 1–10.
  • Refai, M., Abd Elaziz, M., & Wang, L. (2024). Impact of ground control point configuration on UAV photogrammetric accuracy. Remote Sensing, 16(3), 485.
  • Liu, J., Li, X., & Wang, Y. (2018). Accuracy assessment of UAV-derived DEMs for agricultural monitoring. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 146, 68–75.
  • Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geomatics Engineering. (2025). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in large-area UAV surveys with RTK/PPK georeferencing [Technical report].
  • Gao, Y., Zhang, L., & Li, X. (2022). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based LiDAR mapping. Remote Sensing, 14(11), 2785.
  • Yuan, S. (2025). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping in China. Remote Sensing Letters, 16(3), 123–135.
  • Stamenković, J., Petrović, M., & Jovanović, J. (2024). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using DJI P4 multispectral. Drones, 8(1), 23.
  • Tamimi, A., & Toth, C. (2024). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using DJI Matrice 350 RTK. Drones, 8(1), 12.
  • Maboudi, M., & Ghaffarian, S. (2022). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using path-planning algorithms. Drones, 6(3), 78.
  • Zhuangqun, L., Jianhua, L., & Xiaohua, H. (2024). Precision agriculture using UAV photogrammetry. Remote Sensing, 16(2), 180.
  • Susilo, T., Pratama, A., & Putra, R. (2023). Road damage detection using UAV photogrammetry. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 44(8), 2345–2360.
  • Bayanlou, S., & Khoshboresh-Masouleh, N. (2020). Orthophoto mosaic generation using VTOL fixed-wing UAV. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 41(2), 651–666
  • Yakar, M., & Villi, O. (2023). İnsansız Hava Aracı Uygulama Alanları. Mersin Üniversitesi Harita Mühendisliği Kitapları.
  • Yilmaz, H. M., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2008). Digital photogrammetry in obtaining of 3D model data of irregular small objects. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37, 125-130.
  • Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2005, September). Digital photogrammetric methods in documentation of cultural heritages and Beysehir example. In CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium (Vol. 26).
  • Alyilmaz, C., Alyilmaz, S. ., & Yakar, M., (2010). Measurement of petroglyhps (rock of arts) of Qobustan with close range photogrammetry. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 38(Part 5), 29-32.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., Mutluoğlu, Ö., Ulvi, A., Yaman, A., & Bilgilioğlu, S. S. (2018). İnsansız hava aracı ile ortofoto üretimi ve Aksaray Üniversitesi kampüsü örneği. Geomatik, 3(2), 129-136.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2023). İnsansız Hava Araçları ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamaları. Türkiye Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Dergisi, 5(1), 20-33.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., & Yakar, M. (2006). Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) Tarama Sistemi. Yapı Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 2(2), 23-33.
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., Karabacak, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Detection and documentation of stone material deterioration in historical masonry buildings using UAV photogrammetry: A case study of Mersin Sarisih Inn. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, 4(2), 53-61.
  • Kanun, E., Metin, A., & Yakar, M. (2021). Yersel Lazer Tarama Tekniği Kullanarak Ağzıkara Han’ın 3 Boyutlu Nokta Bulutunun Elde Edilmesi. Türkiye Lidar Dergisi, 3(2), 58-64.

Year 2025, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 71 - 80

Hacı Murat Yılmaz , Murat Yakar

https://doi.org/10.53093/mephoj.1797385

Abstract

References

  • Yılmaz, H. M., Karabörk, H., & Yakar, M. (2000). Yersel fotogrametrinin kullanım alanları. Niğde Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 1.
  • Yakar, M., & Yilmaz, H. M. (2008). Using in volume computing of digital close range photogrammetry. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37, B3b.
  • Unal, M., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2004, July). Discontinuity surface roughness measurement techniques and the evaluation of digital photogrammetric method. In Proceedings of the 20th international congress for photogrammetry and remote sensing, ISPRS (Vol. 1103, p. 1108).
  • Ünel, F. B., Kuşak, L., Çelik, M., Alptekin, A., & Yakar, M. (2020). Kıyı çizgisinin belirlenerek mülkiyet durumunun incelenmesi. Türkiye Arazi Yönetimi Dergisi, 2(1), 33-40.
  • Yakar, M., Orhan, O., Ulvi, A., Yiğit, A. Y., & Yüzer, M. M. (2015). Sahip Ata Külliyesi Rölöve Örneği. TMMOB Harita ve Kadastro Mühendisleri Odası, 10.
  • Mohammed, O., & Yakar, M. (2016). Yersel fotogrametrik yöntem ile ibadethanelerin modellenmesi. Selcuk University Journal of Engineering Sciences, 15(2), 85-95.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., & Yakar, M. (2006). Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) Tarama Sistemi. Yapı Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 2(2), 23-33..
  • Yakar, M., & Kocaman, E. (2018). Kayseri-Sahabiye Medresesi 3-boyutlu modelleme çalışması ve animasyonu. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 10(1), 133-138.
  • Pulat, F., Yakar, M., & Ulvi, A. (2022). Three-dimensional modeling of the Kubbe-i Hasiye Shrine with terrestrial photogrammetric method. Cultural Heritage and Science, 3(1), 6-11.
  • Yakar, M., & Doğan, Y. (2017). Mersin Silifke Mezgit Kale Anıt Mezarı fotogrametrik rölöve alımı ve üç boyutlu modelleme çalışması. Geomatik, 2(1), 11-17.
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Investigation of Molla Hari (Halil) Süleyman Paşa Mosque’s material deteriorations. Advanced Engineering Days (AED), 4, 55-57.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2022). İnsansız Hava Araçlarının Kullanım Alanları ve Sensör Tipleri. Türkiye İnsansız Hava Araçları Dergisi, 4(2), 73-100.
  • Yakar, M., Murat Yılmaz, H., Yıldız, F., Zeybek, M., Şentürk, H., & Çelik, H. (2010). Silifke-Mersin Bölgesinde Roma Dönemi Eserlerinin 3 Boyutlu Modelleme Çalışması ve Animasyonu. Jeodezi ve Jeoinformasyon Dergisi, (101).
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., Karabacak, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Detection and documentation of stone material deterioration in historical masonry buildings using UAV photogrammetry: A case study of Mersin Sarisih Inn. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, 4(2), 53-61.
  • Yakar, M., Uysal, M., Toprak, A. S., & Polat, N. (2013). 3D modeling of historical doger caravansaries by digital photogrammetry. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 40, 695-698.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., Karabörk, H., & Yakar, M. (2000). Yersel fotogrametrinin kullanım alanları. Niğde Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1), 1.
  • Yakar, M., Yildiz, F., Alyilmaz, C., & Yilmaz, H. M. (2009). Photogrammetric study for Sircali Medrese Door. 9-th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2009, 879-884.
  • Kahveci, M., & Can, N. (2017). İnsansiz hava araçlari: tarİhçesİ, tanimi, dünyada ve türkİye'dekİ yasal durumu. Selçuk Üniversitesi Mühendislik, Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi, 5(4), 511-535.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2023). İnsansız Hava Araçları ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamaları. Türkiye Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Dergisi, 5(1), 20-33.
  • Tükenmez F & Yakar M (2023). Production of road maps in highway projects by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Advanced Engineering Days (AED), Mersin, Türkiye, 6, 94-96.
  • Yakar, M., Yalçın, M., Demirel, N., & Özdemir, M. (2023). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV photogrammetric surveys using RTK and GCP methods. Remote Sensing Applications, 15(4), 112–130.
  • Yakar, M., Alyılmaz, C., Telci, A., Baygul, E., Çolak, S., Aydın, M., ... & Yılmaz, H. M. (2009). 3D laser scanning and photogrammmetric measurement of Akhan caravansaray.
  • Çallı, S., Kucuk, O., & Bayrak, M. (2023). Effect of RTK and non-RTK UAV systems on vertical accuracy: A case study. Journal of Surveying Engineering, 149(1), 04022052.
  • Elaksher, H., El-Gohary, M., & El-Rabbany, A. (2023). Evaluation of UAV-based photogrammetric accuracy using RTK and GCPs. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 182, 1–14.
  • Aktan, A., Çolak, İ., & Yılmaz, S. (2022). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using SenseFly eBeeX. Survey Review, 54(399), 1–10.
  • Refai, M., Abd Elaziz, M., & Wang, L. (2024). Impact of ground control point configuration on UAV photogrammetric accuracy. Remote Sensing, 16(3), 485.
  • Liu, J., Li, X., & Wang, Y. (2018). Accuracy assessment of UAV-derived DEMs for agricultural monitoring. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 146, 68–75.
  • Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geomatics Engineering. (2025). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in large-area UAV surveys with RTK/PPK georeferencing [Technical report].
  • Gao, Y., Zhang, L., & Li, X. (2022). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based LiDAR mapping. Remote Sensing, 14(11), 2785.
  • Yuan, S. (2025). Evaluation of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping in China. Remote Sensing Letters, 16(3), 123–135.
  • Stamenković, J., Petrović, M., & Jovanović, J. (2024). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using DJI P4 multispectral. Drones, 8(1), 23.
  • Tamimi, A., & Toth, C. (2024). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using DJI Matrice 350 RTK. Drones, 8(1), 12.
  • Maboudi, M., & Ghaffarian, S. (2022). Assessment of vertical accuracy in UAV-based mapping using path-planning algorithms. Drones, 6(3), 78.
  • Zhuangqun, L., Jianhua, L., & Xiaohua, H. (2024). Precision agriculture using UAV photogrammetry. Remote Sensing, 16(2), 180.
  • Susilo, T., Pratama, A., & Putra, R. (2023). Road damage detection using UAV photogrammetry. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 44(8), 2345–2360.
  • Bayanlou, S., & Khoshboresh-Masouleh, N. (2020). Orthophoto mosaic generation using VTOL fixed-wing UAV. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 41(2), 651–666
  • Yakar, M., & Villi, O. (2023). İnsansız Hava Aracı Uygulama Alanları. Mersin Üniversitesi Harita Mühendisliği Kitapları.
  • Yilmaz, H. M., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2008). Digital photogrammetry in obtaining of 3D model data of irregular small objects. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37, 125-130.
  • Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2005, September). Digital photogrammetric methods in documentation of cultural heritages and Beysehir example. In CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium (Vol. 26).
  • Alyilmaz, C., Alyilmaz, S. ., & Yakar, M., (2010). Measurement of petroglyhps (rock of arts) of Qobustan with close range photogrammetry. International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 38(Part 5), 29-32.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., Mutluoğlu, Ö., Ulvi, A., Yaman, A., & Bilgilioğlu, S. S. (2018). İnsansız hava aracı ile ortofoto üretimi ve Aksaray Üniversitesi kampüsü örneği. Geomatik, 3(2), 129-136.
  • Villi, O., & Yakar, M. (2023). İnsansız Hava Araçları ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamaları. Türkiye Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Dergisi, 5(1), 20-33.
  • Yılmaz, H. M., & Yakar, M. (2006). Lidar (Light Detection And Ranging) Tarama Sistemi. Yapı Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 2(2), 23-33.
  • Karataş, L., Alptekin, A., Karabacak, A., & Yakar, M. (2022). Detection and documentation of stone material deterioration in historical masonry buildings using UAV photogrammetry: A case study of Mersin Sarisih Inn. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, 4(2), 53-61.
  • Kanun, E., Metin, A., & Yakar, M. (2021). Yersel Lazer Tarama Tekniği Kullanarak Ağzıkara Han’ın 3 Boyutlu Nokta Bulutunun Elde Edilmesi. Türkiye Lidar Dergisi, 3(2), 58-64.
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Hacı Murat Yılmaz 0000-0002-9725-5792

Murat Yakar 0000-0002-2664-6251

Publication Date December 2, 2025
Submission Date October 5, 2025
Acceptance Date October 25, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 7 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Yılmaz, H. M., & Yakar, M. (n.d.). Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, 7(2), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.53093/mephoj.1797385
AMA Yılmaz HM, Yakar M. Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Mersin Photogrammetry Journal. 7(2):71-80. doi:10.53093/mephoj.1797385
Chicago Yılmaz, Hacı Murat, and Murat Yakar. “Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)”. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal 7, no. 2 n.d.: 71-80. https://doi.org/10.53093/mephoj.1797385.
EndNote Yılmaz HM, Yakar M Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Mersin Photogrammetry Journal 7 2 71–80.
IEEE H. M. Yılmaz and M. Yakar, “Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)”, Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 71–80, doi: 10.53093/mephoj.1797385.
ISNAD Yılmaz, Hacı Murat - Yakar, Murat. “Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)”. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal 7/2 (n.d.), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.53093/mephoj.1797385.
JAMA Yılmaz HM, Yakar M. Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Mersin Photogrammetry Journal.;7:71–80.
MLA Yılmaz, Hacı Murat and Murat Yakar. “Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)”. Mersin Photogrammetry Journal, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 71-80, doi:10.53093/mephoj.1797385.
Vancouver Yılmaz HM, Yakar M. Vertical Accuracy Studies for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Mersin Photogrammetry Journal. 7(2):71-80.