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Avrupa’daki İslamofobinin ‘Avrupalı’ Sebepleri

Year 2016, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 295 - 319, 30.10.2016
https://doi.org/10.19059/mukaddime.88976

Abstract

İslamofobi, Avrupa’nın yaklaşık son çeyrek asrına damgasını vuran en önemli meselelerden biridir. Her ne kadar günden güne derinliği ve yaygınlığı artan bu meselenin sebepleri Müslümanlardan kaynaklanan bir takım olumsuzluklara bağlansa da, Avrupa’daki İslamofobinin asıl sebepleri bizzat Avrupa devletlerinin ve toplumlarının tutumlarında aranmalıdır. Bu makalede, İslamofobinin tanımı ve Avrupa ülkelerindeki somut görünümü hakkında bilgiler verildikten sonra, çeşitli aktörler ve araçlar (entelektüeller, politikacılar, medya ve eğitim politikaları) üzerinden söz konusu asıl sebeplerin açıklanmasına çalışılacaktır.

References

  • Aitchison, C., Hopkins, P. and Kwan, M. (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities - Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  • Allen, C. (2006). United Kingdom: Final Report, Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation içinde (ss. 49-99). 6th PCRD of European Commission.
  • Allen, C. (2007). Islamophobia and Its Consequences, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.), European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 144-167). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Bevelander, P. ve Otterbeck, J. (2012). Islamophobia in Sweden-Politics, Representations, Attitudes and Experiences, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde, (ss. 70-82). London: Routledge.
  • Bleich, E. (2011). What is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept, American Behavioral Scientist, 55 (12), 1581-1600.
  • Bleich, E. ve Maxwell, R. (2012). Assessing Islamophobia in Britain-Where Do Muslims Really Stands?, M. Helbling (Ed.), Islamophobia in the West – Measuring and Explaining Individual Attitudes içinde (ss. 39-55). London: Routledge.
  • Bryfonski, D. (2013). Islamophobia. Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Cajani, L. (2010). Bringing the Ottoman Empire into the European Narrative: Historians’ Debates in the Council of Europe, G. Jonker ve S. Thobani (Ed.). Narrating Islam – Interpretations of the Muslim World in European Texts içinde (ss. 116-119). London: Tauris Academic Studies.
  • Caldwell, C. (2009). Reflections on the Revolution in Europe – Immigration, Islam and the West. New York: Doubleday.
  • Challand, B. (2010). Interwined Identities: A Gender-based Reading of the Visual Representations of Contemporary Islam in European Textbooks, G. Jonker ve S. Thobani (Ed.). Narrating Islam – Interpretations of the Muslim World in European Texts içinde (ss. 120-150). London: Tauris Academic Studies.
  • Cesari, J. (2002). Islam in France: The Shaping of A Religious Minority, Y. Haddad (Ed.). Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens içinde (36-51). Oxford: Oxford University.
  • Cesari, J. (2006). Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation. Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security 6th PCRD of European Commission içinde (ss. 5-48).
  • Cesari, J. (2010). Securitization of Islam in Europe, J. Cesari (Ed.). Muslims in the West after 9/11 içinde (ss. 9-27). New York: Routledge.
  • Cinnirella, M. (2012). Think ‘Terrorist, Think ‘Muslim’?, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 179-189). London: Routledge.
  • Esposito, J. L. (2003). Bir Batı Olgusu Olarak İslam, S. Hunter ve H. Malik (Ed.). Avrupa ve Amerika Müslümanları içinde (ss. 23-31). İstanbul: Gelenek.
  • EUMC, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. (2006). Muslims in the European Union-Discrimination and Islamophobia. Vienna: EUMC.
  • Feffer, J. (2013). An Irrational Fear of Islam Has Its Roots in the Time of the Crusades, Dedria Bryfonski (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde (ss. 141-153). Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Fekete, L. (2010). The New McCarthyism in Europe, Arches Quarterly, 4 (7), 64-68.
  • Field, C. (2012). Revisiting Islamophobia in Contemporary Britain, 2007-10, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 147-161). London: Routledge.
  • Glavanis, P. (Ed.) (1999). Report: ‘Muslim Voices’ in the European Union: The Stranger Within - Community, Identity and Employment. 14 Ocak 2016 tarihinde http://cordis.europa.eu/docs/publications/7078/70781381-6_en.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Halstead, M. (2013). Overview: There Are Four Distinct Forms of Islamophobia, D. Bryfonski (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde (ss. 20-35). Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Helbling, M. (2010). Islamophobia in Switzerland: A new Phenomenon or a New Name for Xenophobia, S. Hug ve H. Kriesi (Ed.). Value Change in Switzerland içinde (ss. 65-80). Lanham: Lexington.
  • Home Office, Hate Crimes, England and Wales 2014 to 2015 – Appendix Tables, Table 4.10. 12 Mart 2016 tarihinde https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/hate-crime-england-and-wales-2014-to-2015 adresinden erişildi.
  • Israeli, R. (2008). The Islamic Challenge in Europe. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
  • Karich, I. (2007). Economic Development of Muslim Communities, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.). European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 62-76). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Keneş, B. (1998). Batı Medyasında İslam İmajı. İstanbul: İz.
  • Malik, K. (2005a). Are Muslims Hated?, 30 Minutes Programı içinde, Channel 4, 8 Aralık 2015 tarihinde http://www.kenanmalik.com/tv/c4_islamophobia.html adresinden erişildi.
  • Malik, K. (2005b). What Hate?, The Guardian, 7 Ocak 2005, 8 Aralık 2015 tarihinde http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/07/religion.islam adresinden erişildi.
  • Maussen, M. (2006). The Netherlands: Anti-Muslim Sentiments and Mobilization in the Netherlands. Discourse, Policies and Violence, Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation içinde (ss. 100-142). 6th PCRD of European Commission.
  • Marechal, B. et al. (Ed.) (2003a). Muslims in the Enlarged Europe. Leiden: Brill.
  • Marechal, B. (2003b). Modalities of Islamic Instruction, B. Marechal et al. (Ed.). Muslims in the Enlarged Europe içinde (ss. 19-77). Leiden: Brill.
  • Modood, T. (2005). British Asian Muslims and the Rusdie Affair, J. Donald and A. Rattansi (Ed.). Race, Culture and Difference içinde (ss. 260-277). London: Sage.
  • Moore, K., Mason, P. ve Lewis, J. (2011). Images of Islam in the UK - The Representation of British Muslims in the National Print News Media 2000-2008. Oxford: Oneworld.
  • Muslim Population. (2014). Europe Muslim Population in 2014. 03 Mart 2016 tarihinde http://www.muslimpopulation.com/Europe adresinden erişildi.
  • Nielsen, J. (2004). Muslims in Western Europe (3.bs.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University.
  • Noll, J. V. (2012). The Aftermath of 9/11 - Tolerance toward Muslims, Islamophobia and Value Orientations, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 124-136). London: Routledge.
  • Norton, A. (2013). On the Muslim Question. Princeton: Princeton University.
  • Oussama, C. (2003). The Growing Islamization of Europe, J. L. Esposito ve F. Burgat (Ed.). Modernizing Islam – Religion in the Public Sphere in the Middle East and Europe içinde (ss. 193-213). London: C. Hurst&Co.
  • Pew Research Center (2015). Report: The Future of World Religions-Population Growth Projections 2010-2050.
  • Razack, S. H. (2008). Casting Out – The Eviction of Muslims from Western Law and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto.
  • Roy, O. (2007). Islamic Terrorist Radicalisation in Europe, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.). European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 52-60). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (1997). Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All: Report of the Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Londra, Runnymede Trust.
  • Saedi, G. (2013). Islamophobia Grew Following 9/11, Dedria Bryfonski, (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde, Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Shadid, W. ve Koningsveld, P. S. (2002). The Negative Image of Islam and Muslims in the West: Causes and Solutions, W. Shadid ve P.S.van Koningsveld (Ed.). Religious Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of Islam in the European Union içinde (ss. 174-196). Leuven: Peeters.
  • Sheridan, L. P. (2006). Islamophobia Pre- and Post-September 11th, 2001, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, (3), 317-336.
  • Shooman, Y. ve Spielhaus, R. (2010). The Concept of the Muslim Enemy in the Public Discourse, J. Cesari (Ed.). Muslims in Europe and the United States after 9/11: Religion, Politics and Law içinde (ss. 198-228). London: Routledge.
  • Strabac, Z. ve Listhaug, O. (2008). Anti-Muslim Prejudice in Europe: A Multilevel Analysis of Survey Data from 30 Countries, Social Science Research, 37, 268-286.
  • Strabac, Z. ve Valenta, M. (2012). Attitudes Toward Muslims in Norway, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 56-69). London: Routledge.
  • Taras, R. (2012). Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University.
  • Tausch, A. et al. (2007). Against Islamophobia – Muslim Communities, Social Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe. New York: Nova Science.
  • Tharoor, I. (2015). Europe’s Fear of Muslim Refugees Echoes Rhetoric of 1930s Anti-Semitism, Washington Post içinde 2 Eylül 2015.
  • Transatlantic Trends-Immigration. 10 Mart 2016 tarihinde http://trends.gmfus.org/files/archived/immigration/doc/TTI2010_English_Key.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Vertovec, S. (2002). Islamophobia and Muslim Recognition in Britain, Y. Haddad (Ed.). Muslims in the West - From Sojourners to Citizens içinde (ss. 19-35). Oxford: Oxford University.

'European' Causes of Islamophobia in Europe

Year 2016, Volume: 7 Issue: 2, 295 - 319, 30.10.2016
https://doi.org/10.19059/mukaddime.88976

Abstract

Islamophobia is one of the most important issues that made its mark in the last quarter of Europe. Although the causes of the issue, the depth and prevalence of which has been increasing day by day, are associated with problems arising from Muslims, the main causes of Islamophobia in Europe should be sought in the attitudes of European states and societies. In this article; after presenting information about the definition and concrete appearance of Islamophobia in European countries, these principal causes will be attempted to explain through various actors and instruments (intellectuals, politicians, media and education policies).

References

  • Aitchison, C., Hopkins, P. and Kwan, M. (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities - Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  • Allen, C. (2006). United Kingdom: Final Report, Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation içinde (ss. 49-99). 6th PCRD of European Commission.
  • Allen, C. (2007). Islamophobia and Its Consequences, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.), European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 144-167). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Bevelander, P. ve Otterbeck, J. (2012). Islamophobia in Sweden-Politics, Representations, Attitudes and Experiences, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde, (ss. 70-82). London: Routledge.
  • Bleich, E. (2011). What is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept, American Behavioral Scientist, 55 (12), 1581-1600.
  • Bleich, E. ve Maxwell, R. (2012). Assessing Islamophobia in Britain-Where Do Muslims Really Stands?, M. Helbling (Ed.), Islamophobia in the West – Measuring and Explaining Individual Attitudes içinde (ss. 39-55). London: Routledge.
  • Bryfonski, D. (2013). Islamophobia. Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Cajani, L. (2010). Bringing the Ottoman Empire into the European Narrative: Historians’ Debates in the Council of Europe, G. Jonker ve S. Thobani (Ed.). Narrating Islam – Interpretations of the Muslim World in European Texts içinde (ss. 116-119). London: Tauris Academic Studies.
  • Caldwell, C. (2009). Reflections on the Revolution in Europe – Immigration, Islam and the West. New York: Doubleday.
  • Challand, B. (2010). Interwined Identities: A Gender-based Reading of the Visual Representations of Contemporary Islam in European Textbooks, G. Jonker ve S. Thobani (Ed.). Narrating Islam – Interpretations of the Muslim World in European Texts içinde (ss. 120-150). London: Tauris Academic Studies.
  • Cesari, J. (2002). Islam in France: The Shaping of A Religious Minority, Y. Haddad (Ed.). Muslims in the West: From Sojourners to Citizens içinde (36-51). Oxford: Oxford University.
  • Cesari, J. (2006). Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation. Submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security 6th PCRD of European Commission içinde (ss. 5-48).
  • Cesari, J. (2010). Securitization of Islam in Europe, J. Cesari (Ed.). Muslims in the West after 9/11 içinde (ss. 9-27). New York: Routledge.
  • Cinnirella, M. (2012). Think ‘Terrorist, Think ‘Muslim’?, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 179-189). London: Routledge.
  • Esposito, J. L. (2003). Bir Batı Olgusu Olarak İslam, S. Hunter ve H. Malik (Ed.). Avrupa ve Amerika Müslümanları içinde (ss. 23-31). İstanbul: Gelenek.
  • EUMC, European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. (2006). Muslims in the European Union-Discrimination and Islamophobia. Vienna: EUMC.
  • Feffer, J. (2013). An Irrational Fear of Islam Has Its Roots in the Time of the Crusades, Dedria Bryfonski (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde (ss. 141-153). Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Fekete, L. (2010). The New McCarthyism in Europe, Arches Quarterly, 4 (7), 64-68.
  • Field, C. (2012). Revisiting Islamophobia in Contemporary Britain, 2007-10, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 147-161). London: Routledge.
  • Glavanis, P. (Ed.) (1999). Report: ‘Muslim Voices’ in the European Union: The Stranger Within - Community, Identity and Employment. 14 Ocak 2016 tarihinde http://cordis.europa.eu/docs/publications/7078/70781381-6_en.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Halstead, M. (2013). Overview: There Are Four Distinct Forms of Islamophobia, D. Bryfonski (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde (ss. 20-35). Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Helbling, M. (2010). Islamophobia in Switzerland: A new Phenomenon or a New Name for Xenophobia, S. Hug ve H. Kriesi (Ed.). Value Change in Switzerland içinde (ss. 65-80). Lanham: Lexington.
  • Home Office, Hate Crimes, England and Wales 2014 to 2015 – Appendix Tables, Table 4.10. 12 Mart 2016 tarihinde https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/hate-crime-england-and-wales-2014-to-2015 adresinden erişildi.
  • Israeli, R. (2008). The Islamic Challenge in Europe. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
  • Karich, I. (2007). Economic Development of Muslim Communities, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.). European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 62-76). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Keneş, B. (1998). Batı Medyasında İslam İmajı. İstanbul: İz.
  • Malik, K. (2005a). Are Muslims Hated?, 30 Minutes Programı içinde, Channel 4, 8 Aralık 2015 tarihinde http://www.kenanmalik.com/tv/c4_islamophobia.html adresinden erişildi.
  • Malik, K. (2005b). What Hate?, The Guardian, 7 Ocak 2005, 8 Aralık 2015 tarihinde http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/07/religion.islam adresinden erişildi.
  • Maussen, M. (2006). The Netherlands: Anti-Muslim Sentiments and Mobilization in the Netherlands. Discourse, Policies and Violence, Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe-Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11: Why the Term Islamophobia is More a Predicament than an Explanation içinde (ss. 100-142). 6th PCRD of European Commission.
  • Marechal, B. et al. (Ed.) (2003a). Muslims in the Enlarged Europe. Leiden: Brill.
  • Marechal, B. (2003b). Modalities of Islamic Instruction, B. Marechal et al. (Ed.). Muslims in the Enlarged Europe içinde (ss. 19-77). Leiden: Brill.
  • Modood, T. (2005). British Asian Muslims and the Rusdie Affair, J. Donald and A. Rattansi (Ed.). Race, Culture and Difference içinde (ss. 260-277). London: Sage.
  • Moore, K., Mason, P. ve Lewis, J. (2011). Images of Islam in the UK - The Representation of British Muslims in the National Print News Media 2000-2008. Oxford: Oneworld.
  • Muslim Population. (2014). Europe Muslim Population in 2014. 03 Mart 2016 tarihinde http://www.muslimpopulation.com/Europe adresinden erişildi.
  • Nielsen, J. (2004). Muslims in Western Europe (3.bs.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University.
  • Noll, J. V. (2012). The Aftermath of 9/11 - Tolerance toward Muslims, Islamophobia and Value Orientations, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 124-136). London: Routledge.
  • Norton, A. (2013). On the Muslim Question. Princeton: Princeton University.
  • Oussama, C. (2003). The Growing Islamization of Europe, J. L. Esposito ve F. Burgat (Ed.). Modernizing Islam – Religion in the Public Sphere in the Middle East and Europe içinde (ss. 193-213). London: C. Hurst&Co.
  • Pew Research Center (2015). Report: The Future of World Religions-Population Growth Projections 2010-2050.
  • Razack, S. H. (2008). Casting Out – The Eviction of Muslims from Western Law and Politics. Toronto: University of Toronto.
  • Roy, O. (2007). Islamic Terrorist Radicalisation in Europe, S. Amghar, A. Boubekeur ve M. Emerson (Ed.). European Islam-Challenges for Public Policy and Society içinde (ss. 52-60). Brüksel: Centre for European Policy Studies.
  • Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia (1997). Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All: Report of the Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Londra, Runnymede Trust.
  • Saedi, G. (2013). Islamophobia Grew Following 9/11, Dedria Bryfonski, (Ed.). Islamophobia içinde, Detroit: Greehaven.
  • Shadid, W. ve Koningsveld, P. S. (2002). The Negative Image of Islam and Muslims in the West: Causes and Solutions, W. Shadid ve P.S.van Koningsveld (Ed.). Religious Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of Islam in the European Union içinde (ss. 174-196). Leuven: Peeters.
  • Sheridan, L. P. (2006). Islamophobia Pre- and Post-September 11th, 2001, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, (3), 317-336.
  • Shooman, Y. ve Spielhaus, R. (2010). The Concept of the Muslim Enemy in the Public Discourse, J. Cesari (Ed.). Muslims in Europe and the United States after 9/11: Religion, Politics and Law içinde (ss. 198-228). London: Routledge.
  • Strabac, Z. ve Listhaug, O. (2008). Anti-Muslim Prejudice in Europe: A Multilevel Analysis of Survey Data from 30 Countries, Social Science Research, 37, 268-286.
  • Strabac, Z. ve Valenta, M. (2012). Attitudes Toward Muslims in Norway, M. Helbling (Ed.). Islamophobia in the West- Measuring and Explaining Individual Atttitudes içinde (ss. 56-69). London: Routledge.
  • Taras, R. (2012). Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University.
  • Tausch, A. et al. (2007). Against Islamophobia – Muslim Communities, Social Exclusion and the Lisbon Process in Europe. New York: Nova Science.
  • Tharoor, I. (2015). Europe’s Fear of Muslim Refugees Echoes Rhetoric of 1930s Anti-Semitism, Washington Post içinde 2 Eylül 2015.
  • Transatlantic Trends-Immigration. 10 Mart 2016 tarihinde http://trends.gmfus.org/files/archived/immigration/doc/TTI2010_English_Key.pdf adresinden erişildi.
  • Vertovec, S. (2002). Islamophobia and Muslim Recognition in Britain, Y. Haddad (Ed.). Muslims in the West - From Sojourners to Citizens içinde (ss. 19-35). Oxford: Oxford University.
There are 53 citations in total.

Details

Journal Section Articles
Authors

Hakan Samur

Publication Date October 30, 2016
Submission Date February 16, 2017
Published in Issue Year 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Samur, H. (2016). Avrupa’daki İslamofobinin ‘Avrupalı’ Sebepleri. Mukaddime, 7(2), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.19059/mukaddime.88976