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An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level

Year 2019, , 151 - 182, 31.07.2019
https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08

Abstract

This paper aims to focus on concentration of income inequality in case of Turkey, based on the Palma ratio that is calculated as the ratio of the share of the top 10 percent income to the bottom 40 percent income. In this regard for the post-2001 period, the income shares of the deciles in Turkey both on national and regional (NUTS-1) level would be analyzed. It would be predicted that, this would provide more specific evidences about the dimensions of the hidden inequality. Within this context based on the descriptive statistics and income inequality decomposition analysis, robustness of the Palma ratio would be evaluated. While overlapping trend between the Palma ratio and the Gini coefficient is found to be significant both on national and regional level, the top10 percent income group represents the most distinctive feature in determining concentration of income inequality between and within the regions of Turkey.

References

  • Atkinson, T. (1970), “On the Measurement of Inequality”, Journal of Economic Theory, 2, 244–63.
  • Atkinson, A. B. (2003), “Income inequality in OECD countries: Data and explanations”, CESifo Economic Studies, 49(4), 479-513.
  • Atkinson, A., Piketty, T. and Saez, E. (2011), “Top Incomes in the Long Run of History”, Journal of Economic Literature, 49 (1), 3–71.
  • Baslevent, C. (2014), “Social Transfers and Income Inequality in Turkey: How Informative Is the Survey of Income and Living Conditions”, Ekonomi-tek-International Economics Journal, 3(3), 23-42.
  • Baslevent, C. (2018), “Household Asset Inequality in Turkey: How Informative is the Survey of Income and Living Conditions?” Economic Research Forum Working Papers, No. 1181.
  • Bayar, A. A. (2016), “The Decomposition of Regional Income Inequalities of Turkey” Unpublished manuscript.https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2016/retrieve.php?pdfid=1382, 10.02.2018.
  • Bellu, G., & Liberati, P. (2006), “Decomposition of Income Inequality by Subgroups”, Policy Impacts on Inequality,http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/444/dcmpsng-inqulty_sbgrp_052en.pdf, 10.06.2018.
  • Bourguignon, Francois, and Christian Morrisson (2002), “The Size Distribution of Income Among World Citizens, 1820-1990”, American Economic Review, September, 727-744.
  • BSB (Bağımsız Sosyal Bilimciler) (2015), AKP’li Yıllarda Emeğin Durumu. Yordam Kitap, İstanbul.
  • Cingano, F. (2014), “Trends in Income Inequality and its Impact on Economic Growth”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 163, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxrjncwxv6j-en, 20.05.2018
  • Cobham, A., and A. Sumner (2013a),”Putting the Gini back in the Bottle? The Palma as a Policy Relevant Measure of Inequality”, Mimeograph. London: King’s College .
  • Cobham, A. and A. Sumner (2013b),“Is It All About the Tails? The Palma Measure of Income Inequality’”,Centre for Global Development Working Paper , No : 343, London: Centre for Global Development.
  • Cobham, A. and A. Sumner (2013b),“Palma vs Gini: Measuring Post-2015 Inequality”http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Blogs/Inequality-debate/Palma-vs-Gini-measuring-post-2015-inequality,4.02.2019.
  • Cobham, A., and Sumner, A. (2015), “Inequality and the Tails: The Palma Proposition and Ratio Revisited”, UN DESA.
  • Cowell, F. A. (2000), “Measurement of inequality”, Handbook of Income Distribution, 1, Anthony Atkinson F. Bourguignon(Eds), Elseveir, 87-166.
  • Dayioglu Meltem and Başlevent Cem (2006),” Imputed Rents and Regional Income Inequality in Turkey: A Subgroup Decomposition of the Atkinson Index”, Regional Studies, 40:8, 889-905.
  • Deininger, K., & Squire, L. (1996), “A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality”, The World Bank Economic Review, 10(3), 565-591.
  • Doyle, M. and Stiglitz, J. (2014), “Eliminating Extreme Inequality: A Sustainable Development Goal, 2015–2030”, Ethics and International Affairs, 28 (10), 1–7.
  • Engberg-Pedersen, L. (2013), “Development Goals Post 2015: Reduce Inequality”, Danish Institute for International Studies Policy Brief: DIIS.
  • Filiztekin, A. Çelik, M. A. (2010), “Regional Income Inequality in Turkey”, Megaron, Vol 5(3), 116-127.
  • Giorgi, G. M. (2011), “The Gini Inequality Index Decomposition. An Evolutionary Study”, The measurement of individual well-being and group inequalities: Essays in memory of ZM Berrebi, Deutsh J. and Silber J.(Eds), Routledge, London, 185-218.
  • Hazledine, T. (2014), “Does the Centre Hold? Testing Palma’s Proposition (A Comment)”, Development and Change, 45 (6), 1409–15.
  • Karaca, O. (2018), “Türkiye'de Bölgesel Yakınsamanın 50 Yılı: Yeni Veri Seti ve 1960-2010 Dönemi Analizi”, Sosyoekonomi, 26, 207-228.Krozer. Alice, (2015), “The Inequality We Want: How Much is too Much?” World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER), No. 015.
  • Lenhardt A. and Shepherd A.(2013),” A New ‘Median’ Inequality Indicator, Designed to Support Poverty Eradication”, http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Blogs/Inequality-debate/A-new-median-inequality-indicator-designed-to-support-poverty-eradication, 20.09.2017.
  • Milanovic, Branko (2005),” Worlds Apart: Global and International Inequality, 1950-2000”, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
  • Milanovic, B. (2015), “Why I am Still Not Excited by the Palma”, http://glineq. blogspot.co.uk/2015/06/why-i-am-still-not-excitedby-palma.html, 20.09.2017.
  • Milanovic, B. (2016), Global inequality: A new Approach for the Age of Globalization. Harvard University Press.
  • Murawski Sara (2013), “Gini, Palma and the Median Inequality Indicator”, http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Articles/Gini-Palma-and-the-median-inequality-indicator, 20.09.2017.
  • Oz, S. (2017) , “Is There an Income Convergence across Provinces of Turkey? “Koç University-TUSIAD Economic Research Forum Working Papers, (No. 1711), Koc University-TUSIAD Economic Research Forum.
  • Saiz, I., & Donald, K. (2017), “Tackling Inequality through the Sustainable Development Goals: Human Rights in Practice”, The International Journal of Human Rights, 21(8), 1029-1049.
  • Şenesen, Ü. (1998), Betimleyici, sorgulayıcı istatistik. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
  • Palma, J.G. (2006), “Globalizing Inequality: “Centrifugal” and “Centripetal” Forces at Work”, DESA Working Paper, 35, New York: United Nations.
  • Palma, J.G. (2011), “Homogeneous Middles vs. Heterogeneous Tails, and the End of the “Inverted-U”: the Share of the Rich is what it’s all about”, Development and Change, 42(1). 87-153
  • Palma, J.G. (2013),” Has the Income Share of the Middle and Upper-Middle been Stable Over Time, or is its Current Homogeneity Across the World the Outcome of a Process of Convergence? The ‘Palma Ratio’ Revisited”, Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, 1437, Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Palma, J.G. (2014) ,”Has the Income Share of the Middle and Upper-Middle Been Stable Around the “50/50 Rule”, or has it Converged Towards That Level? The “Palma Ratio” Revisited”, Development and Change, 45 (6), 1416–48.
  • Palma, J. G. (2018), “Does The Broad Spectrum Of Inequality Across The World In the Current Era of Neo-Liberal Globalization Reflect a Wide Diversity of Fundamentals, or Just A Multiplicity of Political Settlements and Market Failures?” http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/papers/Palma-Intl-Rules.pdf, 10.08.2018.
  • Povcal data set(2018)”PovcalNet” http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand.aspx, 20.01.2019.
  • Prosperity and Shared Prosperity(2016), “Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality”,World Bank Publications,https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf,20.07.2018.Sefil Tansever, S , Kent, O . (2018)”, Earnings Inequality In Turkey: A Regional Perspective” Marmara İktisat Dergisi, 2 (1), 117-136, http://dergipark.gov.tr/mje/issue/36764/418748, 01.03.2019.
  • Selim, R., Günçavdı, Ö. and Bayar, A. A. (2014), “Household Income Inequality in Turkey: Functional Income Sources and Regional Ineqaulities,” TÜSİAD Report, No: TÜSİAD-T/2014-6/554.
  • Smeeding, T., & Latner, J. P. (2015), “ PovcalNet, WDI and ‘All the Ginis’: a critical review”, The Journal of Economic Inequality, 13(4), 603-628.Sutcliffe, Bob (2003), “A More or Less Unequal World? World Income Distribution in the 20th Century”, Working Paper,54, Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=peri_workingpapers, 13.06.2018.
  • Tahsin, E. (2013). “The Gini Illusion Of Turkey: An Approach To Inequalities On The Basis Of The Palma Ratio”, Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 24(89), 73-109.
  • Tekgüç Hasan (2018), “Declining Poverty and Inequality in Turkey: The Effect of Social Assistance and Home Ownership”, South European Society and Politics, 1-24.
  • TurkStat (2018),” Income and Living Conditions Statistics”, www.tuik.gov.tr, 30.01.2019.
  • UNDESA (2013), “Inequality Matters: Report on the World Social Situation 2013”, New York: UNDESA.
  • UNDESA (2015), “Inequality Measurement Development Issues No. 2”, htt://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_dev_issues/dsp_policy_02.pdf, 20.07.2018.
  • UNDP(2016), “Income and Social Inequalities in Turkey- 2016 htt://www.tr.undp.org/content/turkey/en/home/library/human_development/socialinequalities.html, 10.02.2018.
  • Voitchovsky, S. (2005), “Does the Profile of Income Inequality Matter for Economic Growth?”, Journal of Economic growth, 10(3), 273-296.
  • Voitchovsky, S. (2009), “Inequality and Economic Growth”, The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality, Oxford University Press, Oxford.WIR(World Inequality Report) (2018), “World Inequality Report” , https://wir2018.wid.world, 10.01.2019.
  • XTLAS(2018), “Multidimensional tests (Mahalanobis, …), https://www.xlstat.com/en/solutions/features/multidimensional-tests, 10.01.2019.

Türkiye İçin Palma Oranının Ulusal ve Bölgesel Düzeyde Analizi

Year 2019, , 151 - 182, 31.07.2019
https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08

Abstract

Bu çalışma, en üstteki yüzde 10’luk gelir diliminin en alttaki yüzde 40’lık gelir dilimine oranı olarak hesaplanan Palma oranını temel alarak Türkiye’de gelir eşitsizliği yoğunlaşmasına odaklanmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu kapsamda, 2001 sonrası dönem için gerek ulusal gerekse bölgesel (NUTS-1) düzeyde ondalık gelir dilimlerine ilişkin veriler temel alınacaktır. Bundan yola çıkarak gelir eşitsizliğinin esas olarak nerede gizlendiği hakkında daha belirgin sonuçlara ulaşılacağı öngörülmektedir. Çalışmada, betimleyici istatistikler ve gelir eşitsizliği ayrıştırma yöntemi ile ulaşılan bulgulara dayanarak, Palma oranının temelleri sınanmaktadır. Bulgular sonucunda gerek ulusal gerekse bölgesel düzeyde Palma oranı ile Gini katsayısı arasındaki değişim eğiliminin belirgin bir şekilde örtüştüğü görülürken, en üstteki yüzde 10’luk gelir grubunun payının, bölgelerarası ve bölge içindeki eşitsizlikleri belirleyen en temel gelir grubu olma özelliğine sahip olduğu ortaya çıkmaktadır.

References

  • Atkinson, T. (1970), “On the Measurement of Inequality”, Journal of Economic Theory, 2, 244–63.
  • Atkinson, A. B. (2003), “Income inequality in OECD countries: Data and explanations”, CESifo Economic Studies, 49(4), 479-513.
  • Atkinson, A., Piketty, T. and Saez, E. (2011), “Top Incomes in the Long Run of History”, Journal of Economic Literature, 49 (1), 3–71.
  • Baslevent, C. (2014), “Social Transfers and Income Inequality in Turkey: How Informative Is the Survey of Income and Living Conditions”, Ekonomi-tek-International Economics Journal, 3(3), 23-42.
  • Baslevent, C. (2018), “Household Asset Inequality in Turkey: How Informative is the Survey of Income and Living Conditions?” Economic Research Forum Working Papers, No. 1181.
  • Bayar, A. A. (2016), “The Decomposition of Regional Income Inequalities of Turkey” Unpublished manuscript.https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2016/retrieve.php?pdfid=1382, 10.02.2018.
  • Bellu, G., & Liberati, P. (2006), “Decomposition of Income Inequality by Subgroups”, Policy Impacts on Inequality,http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/444/dcmpsng-inqulty_sbgrp_052en.pdf, 10.06.2018.
  • Bourguignon, Francois, and Christian Morrisson (2002), “The Size Distribution of Income Among World Citizens, 1820-1990”, American Economic Review, September, 727-744.
  • BSB (Bağımsız Sosyal Bilimciler) (2015), AKP’li Yıllarda Emeğin Durumu. Yordam Kitap, İstanbul.
  • Cingano, F. (2014), “Trends in Income Inequality and its Impact on Economic Growth”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 163, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxrjncwxv6j-en, 20.05.2018
  • Cobham, A., and A. Sumner (2013a),”Putting the Gini back in the Bottle? The Palma as a Policy Relevant Measure of Inequality”, Mimeograph. London: King’s College .
  • Cobham, A. and A. Sumner (2013b),“Is It All About the Tails? The Palma Measure of Income Inequality’”,Centre for Global Development Working Paper , No : 343, London: Centre for Global Development.
  • Cobham, A. and A. Sumner (2013b),“Palma vs Gini: Measuring Post-2015 Inequality”http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Blogs/Inequality-debate/Palma-vs-Gini-measuring-post-2015-inequality,4.02.2019.
  • Cobham, A., and Sumner, A. (2015), “Inequality and the Tails: The Palma Proposition and Ratio Revisited”, UN DESA.
  • Cowell, F. A. (2000), “Measurement of inequality”, Handbook of Income Distribution, 1, Anthony Atkinson F. Bourguignon(Eds), Elseveir, 87-166.
  • Dayioglu Meltem and Başlevent Cem (2006),” Imputed Rents and Regional Income Inequality in Turkey: A Subgroup Decomposition of the Atkinson Index”, Regional Studies, 40:8, 889-905.
  • Deininger, K., & Squire, L. (1996), “A New Data Set Measuring Income Inequality”, The World Bank Economic Review, 10(3), 565-591.
  • Doyle, M. and Stiglitz, J. (2014), “Eliminating Extreme Inequality: A Sustainable Development Goal, 2015–2030”, Ethics and International Affairs, 28 (10), 1–7.
  • Engberg-Pedersen, L. (2013), “Development Goals Post 2015: Reduce Inequality”, Danish Institute for International Studies Policy Brief: DIIS.
  • Filiztekin, A. Çelik, M. A. (2010), “Regional Income Inequality in Turkey”, Megaron, Vol 5(3), 116-127.
  • Giorgi, G. M. (2011), “The Gini Inequality Index Decomposition. An Evolutionary Study”, The measurement of individual well-being and group inequalities: Essays in memory of ZM Berrebi, Deutsh J. and Silber J.(Eds), Routledge, London, 185-218.
  • Hazledine, T. (2014), “Does the Centre Hold? Testing Palma’s Proposition (A Comment)”, Development and Change, 45 (6), 1409–15.
  • Karaca, O. (2018), “Türkiye'de Bölgesel Yakınsamanın 50 Yılı: Yeni Veri Seti ve 1960-2010 Dönemi Analizi”, Sosyoekonomi, 26, 207-228.Krozer. Alice, (2015), “The Inequality We Want: How Much is too Much?” World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER), No. 015.
  • Lenhardt A. and Shepherd A.(2013),” A New ‘Median’ Inequality Indicator, Designed to Support Poverty Eradication”, http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Blogs/Inequality-debate/A-new-median-inequality-indicator-designed-to-support-poverty-eradication, 20.09.2017.
  • Milanovic, Branko (2005),” Worlds Apart: Global and International Inequality, 1950-2000”, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
  • Milanovic, B. (2015), “Why I am Still Not Excited by the Palma”, http://glineq. blogspot.co.uk/2015/06/why-i-am-still-not-excitedby-palma.html, 20.09.2017.
  • Milanovic, B. (2016), Global inequality: A new Approach for the Age of Globalization. Harvard University Press.
  • Murawski Sara (2013), “Gini, Palma and the Median Inequality Indicator”, http://www.thebrokeronline.eu/Articles/Gini-Palma-and-the-median-inequality-indicator, 20.09.2017.
  • Oz, S. (2017) , “Is There an Income Convergence across Provinces of Turkey? “Koç University-TUSIAD Economic Research Forum Working Papers, (No. 1711), Koc University-TUSIAD Economic Research Forum.
  • Saiz, I., & Donald, K. (2017), “Tackling Inequality through the Sustainable Development Goals: Human Rights in Practice”, The International Journal of Human Rights, 21(8), 1029-1049.
  • Şenesen, Ü. (1998), Betimleyici, sorgulayıcı istatistik. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
  • Palma, J.G. (2006), “Globalizing Inequality: “Centrifugal” and “Centripetal” Forces at Work”, DESA Working Paper, 35, New York: United Nations.
  • Palma, J.G. (2011), “Homogeneous Middles vs. Heterogeneous Tails, and the End of the “Inverted-U”: the Share of the Rich is what it’s all about”, Development and Change, 42(1). 87-153
  • Palma, J.G. (2013),” Has the Income Share of the Middle and Upper-Middle been Stable Over Time, or is its Current Homogeneity Across the World the Outcome of a Process of Convergence? The ‘Palma Ratio’ Revisited”, Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, 1437, Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Palma, J.G. (2014) ,”Has the Income Share of the Middle and Upper-Middle Been Stable Around the “50/50 Rule”, or has it Converged Towards That Level? The “Palma Ratio” Revisited”, Development and Change, 45 (6), 1416–48.
  • Palma, J. G. (2018), “Does The Broad Spectrum Of Inequality Across The World In the Current Era of Neo-Liberal Globalization Reflect a Wide Diversity of Fundamentals, or Just A Multiplicity of Political Settlements and Market Failures?” http://policydialogue.org/files/publications/papers/Palma-Intl-Rules.pdf, 10.08.2018.
  • Povcal data set(2018)”PovcalNet” http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/povOnDemand.aspx, 20.01.2019.
  • Prosperity and Shared Prosperity(2016), “Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality”,World Bank Publications,https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25078/9781464809583.pdf,20.07.2018.Sefil Tansever, S , Kent, O . (2018)”, Earnings Inequality In Turkey: A Regional Perspective” Marmara İktisat Dergisi, 2 (1), 117-136, http://dergipark.gov.tr/mje/issue/36764/418748, 01.03.2019.
  • Selim, R., Günçavdı, Ö. and Bayar, A. A. (2014), “Household Income Inequality in Turkey: Functional Income Sources and Regional Ineqaulities,” TÜSİAD Report, No: TÜSİAD-T/2014-6/554.
  • Smeeding, T., & Latner, J. P. (2015), “ PovcalNet, WDI and ‘All the Ginis’: a critical review”, The Journal of Economic Inequality, 13(4), 603-628.Sutcliffe, Bob (2003), “A More or Less Unequal World? World Income Distribution in the 20th Century”, Working Paper,54, Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=peri_workingpapers, 13.06.2018.
  • Tahsin, E. (2013). “The Gini Illusion Of Turkey: An Approach To Inequalities On The Basis Of The Palma Ratio”, Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 24(89), 73-109.
  • Tekgüç Hasan (2018), “Declining Poverty and Inequality in Turkey: The Effect of Social Assistance and Home Ownership”, South European Society and Politics, 1-24.
  • TurkStat (2018),” Income and Living Conditions Statistics”, www.tuik.gov.tr, 30.01.2019.
  • UNDESA (2013), “Inequality Matters: Report on the World Social Situation 2013”, New York: UNDESA.
  • UNDESA (2015), “Inequality Measurement Development Issues No. 2”, htt://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_dev_issues/dsp_policy_02.pdf, 20.07.2018.
  • UNDP(2016), “Income and Social Inequalities in Turkey- 2016 htt://www.tr.undp.org/content/turkey/en/home/library/human_development/socialinequalities.html, 10.02.2018.
  • Voitchovsky, S. (2005), “Does the Profile of Income Inequality Matter for Economic Growth?”, Journal of Economic growth, 10(3), 273-296.
  • Voitchovsky, S. (2009), “Inequality and Economic Growth”, The Oxford Handbook of Economic Inequality, Oxford University Press, Oxford.WIR(World Inequality Report) (2018), “World Inequality Report” , https://wir2018.wid.world, 10.01.2019.
  • XTLAS(2018), “Multidimensional tests (Mahalanobis, …), https://www.xlstat.com/en/solutions/features/multidimensional-tests, 10.01.2019.
There are 48 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Emine Tahsin 0000-0003-0349-2381

Publication Date July 31, 2019
Submission Date March 5, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019

Cite

APA Tahsin, E. (2019). An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level. Sosyoekonomi, 27(41), 151-182. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08
AMA Tahsin E. An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level. Sosyoekonomi. July 2019;27(41):151-182. doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08
Chicago Tahsin, Emine. “An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level”. Sosyoekonomi 27, no. 41 (July 2019): 151-82. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08.
EndNote Tahsin E (July 1, 2019) An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level. Sosyoekonomi 27 41 151–182.
IEEE E. Tahsin, “An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level”, Sosyoekonomi, vol. 27, no. 41, pp. 151–182, 2019, doi: 10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08.
ISNAD Tahsin, Emine. “An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level”. Sosyoekonomi 27/41 (July 2019), 151-182. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08.
JAMA Tahsin E. An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level. Sosyoekonomi. 2019;27:151–182.
MLA Tahsin, Emine. “An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level”. Sosyoekonomi, vol. 27, no. 41, 2019, pp. 151-82, doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2019.03.08.
Vancouver Tahsin E. An Investigation of the Palma Ratio for Turkey Both on National and Regional Level. Sosyoekonomi. 2019;27(41):151-82.