<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.4 20241031//EN"
        "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.4/JATS-journalpublishing1-4.dtd">
<article  article-type="research-article"        dtd-version="1.4">
            <front>

                <journal-meta>
                                                                <journal-id>susbed</journal-id>
            <journal-title-group>
                                                                                    <journal-title>Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi</journal-title>
            </journal-title-group>
                                        <issn pub-type="epub">2667-4750</issn>
                                                                                            <publisher>
                    <publisher-name>Selcuk University</publisher-name>
                </publisher>
                    </journal-meta>
                <article-meta>
                                        <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.52642/susbed.1779724</article-id>
                                                                <article-categories>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="en">
                                                            <subject>Growth</subject>
                                                            <subject>Financial Economy</subject>
                                                            <subject>International Trade (Other)</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="tr">
                                                            <subject>Büyüme</subject>
                                                            <subject>Finansal Ekonomi</subject>
                                                            <subject>Uluslararası Ticaret (Diğer)</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                    </article-categories>
                                                                                                                                                        <title-group>
                                                                                                                        <trans-title-group xml:lang="tr">
                                    <trans-title>Ticaret Açıklığı ve Ekonomik Büyümenin Karbon Emisyonları Üzerindeki Etkisinde Enerji Tüketiminin Aracı Rolü: Türkiye Örneği</trans-title>
                                </trans-title-group>
                                                                                                                                                                                                <article-title>The Mediating Role of Energy Consumption in the Impact of Trade Openness and Economic Growth on Carbon Emissions: The Case of Turkey</article-title>
                                                                                                    </title-group>
            
                                                    <contrib-group content-type="authors">
                                                                        <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2878-2135</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Bağdaş</surname>
                                    <given-names>Sinan</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                    <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2280-6470</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Şekeroğlu</surname>
                                    <given-names>Gamze</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                                                </contrib-group>
                        
                                        <pub-date pub-type="pub" iso-8601-date="20260430">
                    <day>04</day>
                    <month>30</month>
                    <year>2026</year>
                </pub-date>
                                                    <issue>59</issue>
                                        <fpage>230</fpage>
                                        <lpage>244</lpage>
                        
                        <history>
                                    <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="20250908">
                        <day>09</day>
                        <month>08</month>
                        <year>2025</year>
                    </date>
                                                    <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="20260216">
                        <day>02</day>
                        <month>16</month>
                        <year>2026</year>
                    </date>
                            </history>
                                        <permissions>
                    <copyright-statement>Copyright © 1992, The Journal of Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute</copyright-statement>
                    <copyright-year>1992</copyright-year>
                    <copyright-holder>The Journal of Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute</copyright-holder>
                </permissions>
            
                                                                                                <trans-abstract xml:lang="tr">
                            <p>Çevresel kirliliğin bir parçası olarak karbon emisyonları (CO2 emisyonu) ve belirleyicileri üzerine uzun süredir araştırmalar yapılmakta ve devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, ekonomik büyüme ve ticaret açıklığının CO2 emisyonu üzerindeki etkisinde enerji tüketiminin aracı rolünün Türkiye açısından incelenmesidir. Çalışmada veri analizi, istatistiksel değerlendirmeler ve görselleştirme süreçleri R programı aracılığıyla ve 1965-2022 dönemi için gerçekleştirilmiştir. Analizler sonucunda, Türkiye’de ekonomik büyümeyi temsil eden Gayri Safi Yurt İçi Hasıla (GSYİH) değişkeninin hem enerji tüketimi hem de CO2 emisyonu üzerindeki etkisinin negatif ve istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğu bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, GSYİH’nın CO₂ emisyonları üzerindeki toplam etkisinin yaklaşık %73.8’lik kısmının enerji tüketimi aracılığıyla dolaylı olarak gerçekleştiği belirlenmiştir. Ticaret açıklığının, enerji tüketimi ile CO2 emisyonu üzerindeki etkisi ise pozitif ve anlamlı olarak bulunmuştur. Aracılık etkisi açısından incelendiğinde ise ticaret açıklığının CO2 emisyonları üzerindeki etkisinde enerji tüketiminin aracı rolü istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunmamıştır. Aracı değişkenin tek başına CO2 üzerindeki doğrudan etkisi ise negatif yönde ve istatistiksel olarak anlamlıdır.</p></trans-abstract>
                                                                                                                                    <abstract><p>Research on carbon emissions (CO2 emissions) and their determinants as part of environmental pollution has been ongoing for a long time and continues. The aim of this study is to examine the mediating role of energy consumption in the relationship between economic growth, trade openness, and carbon emissions (CO₂) in the context of Turkey. Data analysis, statistical evaluations, and visualization processes were conducted using the R programming language for the period 1965–2022. The analysis results indicate that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) variable, representing economic growth, has a negative and statistically significant effect on both energy consumption and CO₂ emissions in Turkey. Furthermore, it was determined that approximately 73.8% of the total effect of GDP on CO₂ emissions occurs indirectly through energy consumption. The effect of trade openness on both energy consumption and CO₂ emissions was found to be positive and statistically significant. However, when examined in terms of mediation, the mediating role of energy consumption in the relationship between trade openness and CO₂ emissions was not found to be statistically significant. On the other hand, the direct effect of the mediator variable (energy consumption) on CO₂ emissions was negative and statistically significant.</p></abstract>
                                                            
            
                                                                                        <kwd-group>
                                                    <kwd>Economic Growth</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Trade Openness</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Carbon Emissions</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Energy Consumption</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Mediation Effect</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                            
                                                <kwd-group xml:lang="tr">
                                                    <kwd>Ekonomik Büyüme</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Ticaret Açıklığı</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Karbon Emisyonları</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Enerji Tüketimi</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Aracılık Etkisi</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                                                        </article-meta>
    </front>
    <back>
                            <ref-list>
                                    <ref id="ref1">
                        <label>1</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Abdulle, A. Y., &amp; Mohamed, I. S. A. (2024). The environmental impact of trade openness on CO2 emissions: empirical evidence from Somalia. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(6), 353-364.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref2">
                        <label>2</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Adebayo, T. S., &amp; Beton Kalmaz, D. (2021). Determinants of CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from Egypt. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 28(2), 239-262..</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref3">
                        <label>3</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Agasalim, A. A. (2024). Empirical findings on the relationship of energy consumption, gross domestic product per capita and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(4), 684-690.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref4">
                        <label>4</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Al-Mulali, U., &amp; Sab, C. N. B. C. (2012). The impact of energy consumption and CO2 emission on the economic and financial development in 19 selected countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), 4365-4369.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref5">
                        <label>5</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ansari, M. A., Haider, S., &amp; Khan, N. A. (2020). Does trade openness affects global carbon dioxide emissions: evidence from the top CO2 emitters. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 31(1), 32-53.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref6">
                        <label>6</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Arı, A., &amp; Zeren, F. (2011). CO2 emisyonu ve ekonomik büyüme: Panel veri analizi. Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, 18(2), 37-47.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref7">
                        <label>7</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Artekin, A. Ö. (2024). Brezilya&#039;da GSYİH, Gelir Dağılımı ve Yenilenebilir Enerjinin CO2 Emisyonu Üzerindeki Etkisi: Ampirik Bir Analiz 1. Third Sector Social Economic Review, 59(3), 1679-1700.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref8">
                        <label>8</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Aye, G. C., &amp; Edoja, P. E. (2017). Effect of economic growth on CO2 emission in developing countries: Evidence from a dynamic panel threshold model. Cogent Economics &amp; Finance, 5(1), 1379239.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref9">
                        <label>9</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Baron, R. M., &amp; Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1173.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref10">
                        <label>10</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Beg, N., Morlot, J. C., Davidson, O., Afrane-Okesse, Y., Tyani, L., Denton, F., ... &amp; Rahman, A. A. (2002). Linkages between climate change and sustainable development. Climate policy, 2(2-3), 129-144.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref11">
                        <label>11</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Chebbi, H. E., Olarreaga, M., &amp; Zitouna, H. (2011). Trade openness and CO 2 emissions in Tunisia. Middle East Development Journal, 3(01), 29-53.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref12">
                        <label>12</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Chi, W. E., Huang, S., Jeon, M., Park, E. S., Melguizo, T., &amp; Kezar, A. (2022, August). A practical guide to causal mediation analysis: illustration with a comprehensive college transition program and nonprogram peer and faculty interactions. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 7, p. 886722). Frontiers Media SA.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref13">
                        <label>13</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Çetintaş, H., Bicil, İ. M., &amp; Türköz, K. (2016). Türkiye’de CO2 salınımları enerjitüketimi ve ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. Finans Politik ve Ekonomik Yorumlar, (619), 57-67.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref14">
                        <label>14</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Çetintaş, H., &amp; Sarıkaya, M. (2015). CO2 emissions, energy consumption and economic growth in the USA and the United Kingdom: ARDL approach. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 16(2), 173-194.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref15">
                        <label>15</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Çınar, S. (2011). Gelir ve CO2 emisyonu ilişkisi: panel birim kök ve eşbütünleşme testi.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref16">
                        <label>16</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Destek, M. A., &amp; Sarkodie, S. A. (2019). Investigation of environmental Kuznets curve for ecological footprint: the role of energy and financial development. Science of the total environment, 650, 2483-2489.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref17">
                        <label>17</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Dogan, E., &amp; Turkekul, B. (2016). CO2 emissions, real output, energy consumption, trade, urbanization and financial development: testing the EKC hypothesis for the USA. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(2), 1203-1213.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref18">
                        <label>18</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Efeoğlu, R. (2022). Çevresel Kuznets eğrisi çerçevesinde sanayileşme, yenilenebilir enerji, enerji tüketimi ve finansal gelişmenin CO2 salınımı üzerindeki etkisi. Alanya Akademik Bakış, 6(2), 2103-2115.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref19">
                        <label>19</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ertugrul, H. M., Cetin, M., Seker, F., &amp; Dogan, E. (2016). The impact of trade openness on global carbon dioxide emissions: Evidence from the top ten emitters among developing countries. Ecological indicators, 67, 543-555.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref20">
                        <label>20</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gardener, M. (2012). Beginning R: The statistical programming language. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref21">
                        <label>21</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Güler, V. B., &amp; Petek, A. Türkiye’de Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımlar, Sanayi Üretim Endeksi ve Ticari Açıklığın CO2 Emisyonu Üzerindeki Etkisi. İktisadi ve İdari Yaklaşımlar Dergisi, 7(1), 48-61.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref22">
                        <label>22</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gürlük, S. (2010). Sürdürülebilir kalkınma gelişmekte olan ülkelerde uygulanabilir mi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 5(2), 85-99.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref23">
                        <label>23</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hongxing, Y., Abban, O. J., &amp; Dankyi Boadi, A. (2021). Foreign aid and economic growth: Do energy consumption, trade openness and CO2 emissions matter? A DSUR heterogeneous evidence from Africa’s trading blocs. PloS one, 16(6), e0253457.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref24">
                        <label>24</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Imai, K., Keele, L., &amp; Tingley, D. (2010). A general approach to causal mediation analysis. Psychological methods, 15(4), 309.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref25">
                        <label>25</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Imai, K., Keele, L., Tingley, D., &amp; Yamamoto, T. (2010). Causal mediation analysis using R. In Advances in social science research using R (pp. 129-154). Springer, New York, NY.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref26">
                        <label>26</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Itoo, H. H., &amp; Ali, N. (2023). Analyzing the causal nexus between CO2 emissions and its determinants in India: Evidences from ARDL and EKC approach. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 34(1), 192-213.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref27">
                        <label>27</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Iwata, H., Okada, K., &amp; Samreth, S. (2012). Empirical study on the determinants of CO2 emissions: evidence from OECD countries. Applied Economics, 44(27), 3513-3519.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref28">
                        <label>28</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Jamel, L., &amp; Maktouf, S. (2017). The nexus between economic growth, financial development, trade openness, and CO2 emissions in European countries. Cogent Economics &amp; Finance, 5(1), 1341456.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref29">
                        <label>29</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Karedla, Y., Mishra, R., &amp; Patel, N. (2021). The impact of economic growth, trade openness and manufacturing on CO2 emissions in India: an autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) bounds test approach. Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, 26(52), 376-389.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref30">
                        <label>30</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kasperowicz, R. (2015). Economic growth and CO2 emissions: The ECM analysis. Journal of International Studies, 8(3), 91-98.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref31">
                        <label>31</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kesgingöz, H., &amp; Karamelikli, H. (2015). Dış ticaret-enerji tüketimi ve ekonomik büyümenin CO2 emisyonu üzerine etkisi. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(3), 7-17.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref32">
                        <label>32</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kızılkaya, O., Sofuoğlu, E., &amp; Çoban, O. (2016). Ekonomik büyüme, enerji tüketimi ve çevre kirliliği analizi: Türkiye örneği. Kırıkkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6(2), 255-272.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref33">
                        <label>33</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Korkmaz, Ö., &amp; Develi, A. (2012). Türkiye’de birincil enerji kullanimi, üretimi ve Gayri Safi Yurt İçi Hasila (Gsyih) arasindaki ilişki. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi İktisadi İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 27(2), 1-25.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref34">
                        <label>34</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mahmood, H., Maalel, N., &amp; Zarrad, O. (2019). Trade openness and CO2 emissions: Evidence from Tunisia. Sustainability, 11(12), 3295.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref35">
                        <label>35</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mata, J. P. V., Bautista, M. G. G., Granda, L. E. S., &amp; Zurita Moreano, E. (2024). Evaluating the environmental Kuznets Curve: the role of renewable energy, economic growth, urban density and trade openness on CO2 emissions: an analysis for high-income countries Using the CS-ARDL Model. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(6), 580-596.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref36">
                        <label>36</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mitić, P., Munitlak Ivanović, O., &amp; Zdravković, A. (2017). A cointegration analysis of real GDP and CO2 emissions in transitional countries. Sustainability, 9(4), 568.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref37">
                        <label>37</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Munir, S., &amp; Khan, A. (2014). Impact of fossil fuel energy consumption on CO 2 emissions: evidence from Pakistan (1980-2010). The Pakistan Development Review, 327-346.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref38">
                        <label>38</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Nakip, Mahir (2006). Pazarlama Araştırmaları: Teknikler ve (SPSS Destekli) Uygulamalar, Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref39">
                        <label>39</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Oh, K. Y., &amp; Bhuyan, I. (2018). Trade openness and CO2 emissions: evidence of Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Atmospheric Environment, 12(1), 30-36.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref40">
                        <label>40</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ohlan, R. (2015). The impact of population density, energy consumption, economic growth and trade openness on CO2 emissions in India. Natural Hazards, 79(2), 1409-1428.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref41">
                        <label>41</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özçağ, M. (2019). Kirilgan Beşli Ülkelerinde Co2 Emisyonu Ve Gsyih İlişkileri: Panel Bootstrap Nedensellik Analizi. Journal of Management and Economics Research, 17(3), 374-388.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref42">
                        <label>42</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özçağ, M., &amp; Hotunluoğlu, H. (2015). Kalkınma Anlayışında Yeni Bir Boyut: Yeşil Ekonomi. CBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 13(2), 303-324.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref43">
                        <label>43</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özdemir, N. A. (2024). En Çok Turist Çeken 30 Ülkede Turizm, GSYİH ve Yenilenebilir Enerjinin CO2 Emisyonları Üzerindeki Etkisinin Araştırılması. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12(2), 659-672.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref44">
                        <label>44</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Pata, U. K. (2021). Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, economic complexity, CO2 emissions, and ecological footprint in the USA: testing the EKC hypothesis with a structural break. Environmental science and pollution research, 28(1), 846-861.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref45">
                        <label>45</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Preacher, K. J., &amp; Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior research methods, instruments, &amp; computers, 36(4), 717-731.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref46">
                        <label>46</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Preacher, K. J., &amp; Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior research methods, 40(3), 879-891.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref47">
                        <label>47</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Rauf, A., Liu, X., Amin, W., Ozturk, I., Rehman, O. U., &amp; Hafeez, M. (2018). Testing EKC hypothesis with energy and sustainable development challenges: a fresh evidence from belt and road initiative economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(32), 32066-32080.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref48">
                        <label>48</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Schröder, E., &amp; Storm, S. (2020). Economic growth and carbon emissions: The road to “hothouse earth” is paved with good intentions. International Journal of Political Economy, 49(2), 153-173.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref49">
                        <label>49</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sharma, S. S. (2011). Determinants of carbon dioxide emissions: Empirical evidence from 69 countries. Applied energy, 88(1), 376-382.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref50">
                        <label>50</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">TB, (2021). Yeşil Mutabakat Eylem Planı 2021. https://ticaret.gov.tr.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref51">
                        <label>51</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">T.C. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı. 2024. “Enerji Verimliliği”. https://enerji.gov.tr/enerji-verimliligi.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref52">
                        <label>52</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">TÜİK, (2025). Sera gazı emisyon istatistikleri, 1990-2023. Online: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref53">
                        <label>53</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Bulten/Index?p=Sera-Gazi-Emisyon-Istatistikleri-1990-2023-53974.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref54">
                        <label>54</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Topallı, N. (2022). CO2 emisyonu ve ticari açıklık arasındaki ilişki: Asya pasifik ülkeleri örneği. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 21(83), 1109-1130.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref55">
                        <label>55</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı. 2023. “Çevresel Göstergeler”. https://cevreselgostergeler.csb.gov.tr/yakita-gore-birincil-enerji-tuketimi-i-85801.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref56">
                        <label>56</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Türköz, K. (2025). Türkiye’de Ekonomik Karmaşıklık, İnsani Gelişme ve Çevresel Bozulma Arasındaki Bağlantı: QARDL Yaklaşımından Yeni Kanıtlar. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 40(1), 132-150.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref57">
                        <label>57</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Uysal, D. &amp; Yapraklı, H. 2016. “Kişi Başına Düşen Gelir, Enerji Tüketimi ve Karbondioksit (CO₂ ) Emisyonu Arasındaki İlişkinin Yapısal Kırılmalar Altında Analizi: Türkiye Örneği”. Selçuk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Sosyal Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi (31):186-202.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref58">
                        <label>58</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Wu, J. S. (2023). Measuring economic development and carbon dioxide emissions inefficiency. SAGE Open, 13(1), 21582440231154418.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref59">
                        <label>59</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Yıldız, G. A. (2021). OPEC üyesi orta doğu ülkelerinde CO2 emisyonu, enerji tüketimi ve ticari açıklık: panel ARDL yaklaşımı. Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 35(1), 83-102.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref60">
                        <label>60</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Yücesan, M., Yağış, O., &amp; Torun, M. (2019). Ekonomik büyüme ve enerji tüketiminin CO2 emisyonu üzerindeki etkileri: Seçilmiş MENA ülkeleri için panel veri analizi. Journal of Management and Economics Research, 17(4), 351-368.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref61">
                        <label>61</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Zmami, M., &amp; Ben-Salha, O. (2020). An empirical analysis of the determinants of CO2 emissions in‎ GCC countries. International Journal of Sustainable Development &amp; World Ecology, 27(5), 469-480.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                            </ref-list>
                    </back>
    </article>
