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Türkiye Balarılarında Genetik Farklılık

Year 2002, Volume: 02 Issue: 3, 10 - 17, 27.08.2002

Abstract

Apis mellifera morfoloji ve genetik karakterler bakımından farlılık göstermektedir. Enzim ve mitokondri DNA (mtDNA) farklılıklarının incelenmesi balarılarında genetik ve coğrafik farklılıkları göstermede oldukça yararlı metodlardır. MtDNA farklılıkları 4 arı soyunu açığa çıkarmaktadır. Batı Avrupa, Doğu Avrupa, Afrika ve yeni açıklanan Ortadoğu soy kütüğüdür. Türkiye’de mtDNA çalışmaları Anadolu ve Kafkas arısının Doğu Avrupa’ya ait olduğunu göstermektedir. Trakya bölgesinde toplanan Anadolu ırkı numulerinin yaklaşık %86’sı Karniyol arısının genetik karakterlerini paylaşmaktadır. Errzurum’da toplanan arı numulerinin % 29, Muş, Bitlis, ve Van da %25 Kafkas ırkını temsil etmektedir. Hatay’dan alınan örneklerde %57 sinin Suriye arısıma ait olduğuna inanılmaktadır. Enzim farklılıkları Türkiye’de arılarda genetik farklılıklar açısından öğrenilecek çok şey olmasına rağmen bu farklılıklar değişik nedenlerle gezginci arıcılık, az sayıda, aynı kökenden gelen kraliçe arılar kullanılarak kaybedilmesi gibi ciddi bir tehlike söz konusudur. Türkiye coğrafik olarak Avrupa, Asya, ve Ortadoğunun birleşme noktasıdır ve sınırları içerisinde çok geniş bir iklim ve bölge yelpazesine sahiptir. Bu durum bio-coğrafik çalışmalar için ideal bir konum oluşturur. Bu yüzden tahmin edileceği gibi Türkiye`deki balarıları dış görünüş, davranış, ekoloji, ve hastalıklara direnç açısından önemli farklılıklar gösterir. Enzim ve mtDNA analizleri morfolojik sonuçlarla benzerlik göstermenin yanında yeni bilgiler de açığa çıkarmıştır. Ruttner (1988) Türkiye’de 4 arı ırkı önermiştir; Anadolu, Kafkas, Đran ve Suriye arısı. Kafkas arısı Kuzeydoğu Anadolu, Doğu Karadeniz kıyıları, Đran arısı Güneydoğu, Suriye arısı Güneydoğu ve Suriye ile sınır kısımlarında ve Anadolu arısının Trakya dahil Türkiye`nin geri kalan kısımlarında bulunduğunu belirtmiştir. Ruttner Kafkas, Anadolu, Ermeni ve Girit arılarını Oryantal grup içine almıştır. Fakat genetik çalışmalar Anadolu ve Kafkas arısının Doğu Avrupa grubu içinde Karniyol ve Đtalyan arıları ile C grubunda olması gerektiğini göstermiştir. Trakya bölgesindeki Anadolu arısı, Anadolu`daki Anadolu arısından bazı farklılıklar, Karniyol arısına ise benzerlik göstermiştir. Bu genetik farklılıklar arıcılıkta sorunları çözmenin, Ör. hastalıklara dirençli arı hatları geliştirmenin hammaddeleridir. Bu farklı ırkların kaybedilmesi durumunda işlenecek hammadde olmayacaktır. Türkiye’deki bal arılarının genetik farklılıkları daha yeni çalışılmaya başlanmıştır ve DNA çalışmaları daha ayrıntılı bilgilere ulaşmamızı sağlayacaktır. Bu genetik farklılıklar ekonomik yönden oldukça önemlidir. Çünkü her bölgenin kendi arısı o bölgenin ekolojik koşullarına adapte olmuş, ve bölgesinde nasıl hayatta kalabileceğini bilen arılardır. Yeni ulaşım vasıtaları ve gezginci arıcılık Ör. Varroa gibi hastalıkların çok hızlı bulaşmasına neden olmuş ve farklı bölgelerin arısı yeni bölgedeki iklime uyum sağlamasının zorluğu yanında yeni bölgedeki hastalık ve arı zararlıları ile mücadelesi oldukça zordur. Bugün Türkiye arılarının genetik farklılıkların belirlenmeden kaybedilmesi riski bulunmaktadır.

References

  • Adam, 1954. In search of the best strains of bees: second journey. Bee World 35: 193-203, 233-244.
  • Adam, 1964. In search of the best strains of bee: concluding journeys. Bee World 45: 70-83, 104-118.
  • Adam, 1977. In search of the best strains of bee: supplementary journey to Asia Minor, 1973. Bee world 58: 57-66.
  • Adam, 1983. In search of the best strains of bees. Northern Bee Books, Hebden Bridge, West Yorkshire, U.K, and Dandant and Sons, Hamilton. Illinois U.S.A.
  • Alpatov, W. W. 1929. Biometrical studies on variation and races of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). Quart. Rev. Biol. 4: 1-58 Arias, M. C. and Sheppard, W. S. 1996. Molecular phylogenetics of honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera L.) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molec. Phylogenetics and Evol. 5: 557-566.
  • Asal, S., Kocabaş, S., Elmaci, C., and Yildiz, M. A. 1995. Enzyme polymorphism in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) from Anatolia. Turkish J. Zoology 19: 153-156.
  • Buttel-Reepen, H. 1906. Apistica. Beiträge zur Systematik, Biologie, sowie zur geschichtlichen und geographischen Verbreitung der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera L.), ihrer Varietäten und der übrigen ApisArten. Veröff Zool. Mus. Berlin. 118-120.
  • Contel, E. P. B., Mestriner, M. A. and Martins, E. 1977. Genetic control and developmental expression of malate dehydrogenase in Apis mellifera. Biochem. Genet. 15: 859-875.
  • Coelho, J. R. and Mitton, J. B. 1988. Oxygen consumption during hovering is associated with genetic variation of enzymes in honey-bees. Functional Ecology 2: 141- 146.
  • Cornuet, J.-M. 1982. The MDH polymorphism in some West Mediterranean honeybee populations. Proc. 9th Cong. I.U.S.S.I., Boulder (USA).
  • Cornuet, J. M., Daoudi, A., Mohssine, H. and Fresnaye, J. 1988. Étude biométrique de populations d'abeilles Marocaines. Apidologie 19: 355-366.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., and Fresnaye, J. 1989. Biometrical study of honey bee populations from Spain and Portugal. Apidologie 20: 93-101.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., and Garnery, L. 1991. Mitochondrial DNA variability in honeybees and its phylogeographic implications. Apidologie 22: 627-642.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., Oldroyd, B. P. and Crozier, R. H. 1995. Unequal thermostability of allelic forms of malate dehydrogenase in honey bees. J. Apic. Res. 34:45-47.
  • Crewe, R. M., Hepburn, H. R. and Moritz, R. F. A. 1994. Morphometric analysis of 2 southern African races of honey bee. Apidologie 25: 61-70.
  • Daly, H. V., Danka, R. G., Hoelmer, K., Rinderer, T. E. and Buco, S. M. 1995. Honey bee morphometrics: linearity of variables with respect to body size and classification tested with European worker bees reared by varying number of nurse bees. J. Apic. Res. 34: 129-145.
  • Dedej, S., Biasiolo, A. and Piva, R. 1996. Morphometric and alloenzyme characterization in the Albanian honeybee population Apis mellifera L. Apidologie 27: 121-131.
  • DuPraw, E. 1965. Non-Linnean taxonomy and the systematics of honey bees. Syst. Zool. 14: 1-24.
  • Engel, M. S. 1999. The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis). J. Hym. Res. 82 (2): 165-196.
  • Estoup, A., Garnery, L., Solignac, M. and Cornuet, J.-M. 1995. Microsatellite variation in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) populations: hierarchical genetic structure and test of the infinite allele and stepwise mutation models. Genetics 140: 679-695.
  • Garnery, L., Cornuet, J.-M. and Solignac, M. 1992. Evolutionary history of the honey bee Apis mellifera inferred from mitochondrial DNA analysis. Molecular Ecology 1, 145-154.
  • Güler, A. 1996. Türkiye`deki önemli balarısı (Apis mellifera L.) Įrk ve ekotiplerinin morfolojik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ve performanslarının saptanması. [Morphometric characteristics and performances of honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) races and ecotypes in Turkey.] (Ph. D. Thesis) Çukurova Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Adana, Turkey.
  • Güler, A., Kaftanoğlu, O., Bek, Y. and Yeninar, H. 1999. Türkiye`deki çeşitli balarısı (Apis mellifera) ırk ve ekotiplerinin morfolojik karakterler açısından ilişkilerinin diskriminant analiz yöntemi ile saptanması. TÜBİTAK Doğa 23 (4): 337-344.
  • Hall, H. G. and Smith, D. R. 1991. Distinguishing African and European honey bee matrilines using amplified mitochondrial DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 4548-4552.
  • Harrison, J. F., Nielsen, D. I. and Page, R. E. Jr. 1996. Malate dehydrogenase phenotype, temperature and colony effects on flight metabolic rate in the honey-bee, Apis mellifera. Functional Ecology 10: 81-88.
  • Hamilton, A. 1982. Environmental history of east Africa. London: Academic Press.
  • Hepburn, H. R., Radloff, S. E. and Fuchs, S. 1999. Flight machinery dimensions of honeybees, Apis mellifera. J. Comp. Physiol. B 169: 107-112.
  • Hewitt, G. M. 1996. Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 58: 247-276.
  • Hunt, G. J. and Page, R. E. Jr. 1995. Linkage map of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, based on RAPD Markers. Genetics 139: 1371-1382.
  • Kandemir, I. and Kence, A. 1995. Allozyme variability in a central Anatolian honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) population. Apidologie 26: 503-510.
  • Meixner, M. D., Sheppard, W. S., Dietz, A. and Krell, R. 1994. Morphological and allozyme variability in honey bees from Kenya. Apidologie 25: 188-202.
  • Meixner M. D., Sheppard, W. S. and Poklukar, J. 1993. Asymmetrical distribution of a mitochondrial DNA polymorphism between 2 introgressing honey bee subspecies. Apidologie 24: 147-153.
  • Moritz, R. F. A., Cornuet, J.-M., Kryger, P., Garnery, L. and Hepburn, H. R. 1994. Mitochondrial DNA variability in South African honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). Apidologie 25: 169-178.
  • Ndiritu, D. W., Mutugi, N. and Ndung’u, S. 1986. Variation in malate dehydrogenase allozymes among honeybee populations in Kenya. J. Apic. Research 25:234-237.
  • Nielsen, D., Page, R. E. Jr. and Crosland, M. W. J., 1994. Clinal variation and selection of MDH allozymes in honey bee populations. Experientia 50: 867-871.
  • Nunamaker, R. A. and Wilson, W. T. 1981. Comparison of MDH allozyme patterns in the African honey bee (Apis mellifera adansonii L.) and the Africanized populations of Brazil. J. Kansas. Ent. Soc. 54: 704-710
  • Nunamaker, R. A., Wilson, W. T. and Haley, B. E. 1984. Electrophoretic detection of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) in Guatemala and Mexico based on malate dehydrogenase allozyme patterns. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 57: 622- 631.
  • Palmer, M. R., Smith, D. R. and Kaftanoğlu, O. 2000. Turkish honeybees: genetic variation and evidence for a fourth lineage of Apis mellifera mtDNA. Journal of Heredity 91: 42-46.
  • Potts, R. and Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1992. Late Cenozoic terrestrial ecosystems, pp. 419- 521. In A. K. Behrensmeyer, J. D. Damuth, W. A. DiMichele, R. Potts, H.-D. Sues, and S. L. Wing [eds.], Terrestrial ecosystems through time. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
  • Ruttner, F. 1988. Biogeography and taxonomy of honey bees. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
  • Ruttner, F. 1992. Naturgeschichte der Honigbienen. Ehrenwirth, München. 357 pp.
  • Ruttner, F., Tassencourt, L. and Louveaux, J. 1978. Biometrical-Statistical analysis of the geographic variability of Apis mellifera L. Apidologie 9: 363-381.
  • Sheppard, W. S., Arias, M. C., Grech, A. and Meixner, M. D. 1997. Apis mellifera ruttneri, a new honey bee subspecies from Malta. Apidologie 28: 287-293.
  • Sheppard, W. S. and Berlocher, S. H. 1984. Enzyme polymorphisms in Apis mellifera mellifera from Norway. J. Apic. Res. 23: 64-69.
  • Sheppard, W. S. and Huettel, M. D. 1988. Biochemical genetic markers, intraspecific variation, and population genetics of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. pp. 281-286 In G. R. Needham, R. E. Page, M. DelfinadoBaker, and C. E. Bowman [eds.], Africanized honey bees and bee mites. Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England S
  • heppard, W. S., Rinderer, T. E., Meixner, M. D., Yoo, H. R., Stelzer, J. A., Schiff, N. M., Kamel, S. M. and Krell, R. 1996. HinfI variation in mitochondrial DNA of old world honey bee subspecies. J. Hered. 87: 35-40.
  • Skorikov, A. S. 1929. Eine neue Basis für eine Revision der Gattung Apis L. Rep. Appl. Entomol. 4: 249-264. (Russian with German summary).
  • Smith, D. R. 1991a. African bees in the Americas: Insights from biogeography and genetics. Trends in Ecol. Evol. 6: 17-21.
  • Smith, D. R. 1991b. Mitochondrial DNA and honey bee biogeography. pp. 131-176 In D. R. Smith [ed.], Diversity in the Genus Apis. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
  • Smith, D. R. and Brown, W. M. 1988. Mitochondrial DNA restriction site polymorphisms in American and Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera). Experientia 44: 257-260.
  • Smith, D. R. and Brown, W. M. 1990. Restriction endonuclease cleavage site and length polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA of Apis mellifera and A. m. carnica (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 83: 81-87.
  • Smith, D. R., Brown, W. M. and Taylor, O. R. Jr. 1989. Neotropical Africanized bees have African mitochondrial DNA. Nature 339: 213-215.
  • Smith, D. R., Slaymaker, A., Palmer, M. and Kaftanolğu, O. 1997. Turkish honey bees belong to the east Mediterranean mitochondrial lineage. Apidologie 28: 269- 27
  • van Zinderen Bakker, E. M. 1976. The evolution of late Quarternary palaeoclimates of southern Africa. Palaeoecology of Africa 9: 160-202.

Genetic Diversity in Turkish Honey Bees

Year 2002, Volume: 02 Issue: 3, 10 - 17, 27.08.2002

Abstract

Apis mellifera shows geographic variation in morphology and in genetic characteristics. Allozyme polymoprhisms and mitochondrial DNA variation are particularly useful tools for the study of genetic and geographic variation in honey bees. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation reveals four lineages of bees: West European, East European, African and a newly recognized Middle Eastern lineage. In Turkey, mtDNA study shows that A. m. anatoliaca and A. m. caucasica belong to the East European group. Approximately 86% of sample colonies of A. m. anatoliaca in Thrace share genetic traits with A. m. carnica. A. m. caucasica mtDNA was found in 77% of colonies examined near the Georgian border, 29% of sample colonies in Erzurum, and 25% of sample colonies from Muş, Bitlis and Van. Samples from Hatay showed that 57% had mtDNA belonging to the Middle Eastern group. These are believed to represent A. m. syriaca. Allozyme variation also exists among Turkish populations, but a high frequency of Mdh1100 is characteristic of all populations examined. There is still much to learn about genetic variation among Turkish honey bees, but much variation may be lost due to migratory beekeeping, large scale queen production from limited stocks and distributing them to all over the country.

References

  • Adam, 1954. In search of the best strains of bees: second journey. Bee World 35: 193-203, 233-244.
  • Adam, 1964. In search of the best strains of bee: concluding journeys. Bee World 45: 70-83, 104-118.
  • Adam, 1977. In search of the best strains of bee: supplementary journey to Asia Minor, 1973. Bee world 58: 57-66.
  • Adam, 1983. In search of the best strains of bees. Northern Bee Books, Hebden Bridge, West Yorkshire, U.K, and Dandant and Sons, Hamilton. Illinois U.S.A.
  • Alpatov, W. W. 1929. Biometrical studies on variation and races of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). Quart. Rev. Biol. 4: 1-58 Arias, M. C. and Sheppard, W. S. 1996. Molecular phylogenetics of honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera L.) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molec. Phylogenetics and Evol. 5: 557-566.
  • Asal, S., Kocabaş, S., Elmaci, C., and Yildiz, M. A. 1995. Enzyme polymorphism in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) from Anatolia. Turkish J. Zoology 19: 153-156.
  • Buttel-Reepen, H. 1906. Apistica. Beiträge zur Systematik, Biologie, sowie zur geschichtlichen und geographischen Verbreitung der Honigbiene (Apis mellifera L.), ihrer Varietäten und der übrigen ApisArten. Veröff Zool. Mus. Berlin. 118-120.
  • Contel, E. P. B., Mestriner, M. A. and Martins, E. 1977. Genetic control and developmental expression of malate dehydrogenase in Apis mellifera. Biochem. Genet. 15: 859-875.
  • Coelho, J. R. and Mitton, J. B. 1988. Oxygen consumption during hovering is associated with genetic variation of enzymes in honey-bees. Functional Ecology 2: 141- 146.
  • Cornuet, J.-M. 1982. The MDH polymorphism in some West Mediterranean honeybee populations. Proc. 9th Cong. I.U.S.S.I., Boulder (USA).
  • Cornuet, J. M., Daoudi, A., Mohssine, H. and Fresnaye, J. 1988. Étude biométrique de populations d'abeilles Marocaines. Apidologie 19: 355-366.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., and Fresnaye, J. 1989. Biometrical study of honey bee populations from Spain and Portugal. Apidologie 20: 93-101.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., and Garnery, L. 1991. Mitochondrial DNA variability in honeybees and its phylogeographic implications. Apidologie 22: 627-642.
  • Cornuet, J.-M., Oldroyd, B. P. and Crozier, R. H. 1995. Unequal thermostability of allelic forms of malate dehydrogenase in honey bees. J. Apic. Res. 34:45-47.
  • Crewe, R. M., Hepburn, H. R. and Moritz, R. F. A. 1994. Morphometric analysis of 2 southern African races of honey bee. Apidologie 25: 61-70.
  • Daly, H. V., Danka, R. G., Hoelmer, K., Rinderer, T. E. and Buco, S. M. 1995. Honey bee morphometrics: linearity of variables with respect to body size and classification tested with European worker bees reared by varying number of nurse bees. J. Apic. Res. 34: 129-145.
  • Dedej, S., Biasiolo, A. and Piva, R. 1996. Morphometric and alloenzyme characterization in the Albanian honeybee population Apis mellifera L. Apidologie 27: 121-131.
  • DuPraw, E. 1965. Non-Linnean taxonomy and the systematics of honey bees. Syst. Zool. 14: 1-24.
  • Engel, M. S. 1999. The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis). J. Hym. Res. 82 (2): 165-196.
  • Estoup, A., Garnery, L., Solignac, M. and Cornuet, J.-M. 1995. Microsatellite variation in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) populations: hierarchical genetic structure and test of the infinite allele and stepwise mutation models. Genetics 140: 679-695.
  • Garnery, L., Cornuet, J.-M. and Solignac, M. 1992. Evolutionary history of the honey bee Apis mellifera inferred from mitochondrial DNA analysis. Molecular Ecology 1, 145-154.
  • Güler, A. 1996. Türkiye`deki önemli balarısı (Apis mellifera L.) Įrk ve ekotiplerinin morfolojik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi ve performanslarının saptanması. [Morphometric characteristics and performances of honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) races and ecotypes in Turkey.] (Ph. D. Thesis) Çukurova Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Adana, Turkey.
  • Güler, A., Kaftanoğlu, O., Bek, Y. and Yeninar, H. 1999. Türkiye`deki çeşitli balarısı (Apis mellifera) ırk ve ekotiplerinin morfolojik karakterler açısından ilişkilerinin diskriminant analiz yöntemi ile saptanması. TÜBİTAK Doğa 23 (4): 337-344.
  • Hall, H. G. and Smith, D. R. 1991. Distinguishing African and European honey bee matrilines using amplified mitochondrial DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 4548-4552.
  • Harrison, J. F., Nielsen, D. I. and Page, R. E. Jr. 1996. Malate dehydrogenase phenotype, temperature and colony effects on flight metabolic rate in the honey-bee, Apis mellifera. Functional Ecology 10: 81-88.
  • Hamilton, A. 1982. Environmental history of east Africa. London: Academic Press.
  • Hepburn, H. R., Radloff, S. E. and Fuchs, S. 1999. Flight machinery dimensions of honeybees, Apis mellifera. J. Comp. Physiol. B 169: 107-112.
  • Hewitt, G. M. 1996. Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 58: 247-276.
  • Hunt, G. J. and Page, R. E. Jr. 1995. Linkage map of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, based on RAPD Markers. Genetics 139: 1371-1382.
  • Kandemir, I. and Kence, A. 1995. Allozyme variability in a central Anatolian honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) population. Apidologie 26: 503-510.
  • Meixner, M. D., Sheppard, W. S., Dietz, A. and Krell, R. 1994. Morphological and allozyme variability in honey bees from Kenya. Apidologie 25: 188-202.
  • Meixner M. D., Sheppard, W. S. and Poklukar, J. 1993. Asymmetrical distribution of a mitochondrial DNA polymorphism between 2 introgressing honey bee subspecies. Apidologie 24: 147-153.
  • Moritz, R. F. A., Cornuet, J.-M., Kryger, P., Garnery, L. and Hepburn, H. R. 1994. Mitochondrial DNA variability in South African honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). Apidologie 25: 169-178.
  • Ndiritu, D. W., Mutugi, N. and Ndung’u, S. 1986. Variation in malate dehydrogenase allozymes among honeybee populations in Kenya. J. Apic. Research 25:234-237.
  • Nielsen, D., Page, R. E. Jr. and Crosland, M. W. J., 1994. Clinal variation and selection of MDH allozymes in honey bee populations. Experientia 50: 867-871.
  • Nunamaker, R. A. and Wilson, W. T. 1981. Comparison of MDH allozyme patterns in the African honey bee (Apis mellifera adansonii L.) and the Africanized populations of Brazil. J. Kansas. Ent. Soc. 54: 704-710
  • Nunamaker, R. A., Wilson, W. T. and Haley, B. E. 1984. Electrophoretic detection of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) in Guatemala and Mexico based on malate dehydrogenase allozyme patterns. J. Kansas Entomol. Soc. 57: 622- 631.
  • Palmer, M. R., Smith, D. R. and Kaftanoğlu, O. 2000. Turkish honeybees: genetic variation and evidence for a fourth lineage of Apis mellifera mtDNA. Journal of Heredity 91: 42-46.
  • Potts, R. and Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1992. Late Cenozoic terrestrial ecosystems, pp. 419- 521. In A. K. Behrensmeyer, J. D. Damuth, W. A. DiMichele, R. Potts, H.-D. Sues, and S. L. Wing [eds.], Terrestrial ecosystems through time. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL
  • Ruttner, F. 1988. Biogeography and taxonomy of honey bees. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
  • Ruttner, F. 1992. Naturgeschichte der Honigbienen. Ehrenwirth, München. 357 pp.
  • Ruttner, F., Tassencourt, L. and Louveaux, J. 1978. Biometrical-Statistical analysis of the geographic variability of Apis mellifera L. Apidologie 9: 363-381.
  • Sheppard, W. S., Arias, M. C., Grech, A. and Meixner, M. D. 1997. Apis mellifera ruttneri, a new honey bee subspecies from Malta. Apidologie 28: 287-293.
  • Sheppard, W. S. and Berlocher, S. H. 1984. Enzyme polymorphisms in Apis mellifera mellifera from Norway. J. Apic. Res. 23: 64-69.
  • Sheppard, W. S. and Huettel, M. D. 1988. Biochemical genetic markers, intraspecific variation, and population genetics of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. pp. 281-286 In G. R. Needham, R. E. Page, M. DelfinadoBaker, and C. E. Bowman [eds.], Africanized honey bees and bee mites. Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England S
  • heppard, W. S., Rinderer, T. E., Meixner, M. D., Yoo, H. R., Stelzer, J. A., Schiff, N. M., Kamel, S. M. and Krell, R. 1996. HinfI variation in mitochondrial DNA of old world honey bee subspecies. J. Hered. 87: 35-40.
  • Skorikov, A. S. 1929. Eine neue Basis für eine Revision der Gattung Apis L. Rep. Appl. Entomol. 4: 249-264. (Russian with German summary).
  • Smith, D. R. 1991a. African bees in the Americas: Insights from biogeography and genetics. Trends in Ecol. Evol. 6: 17-21.
  • Smith, D. R. 1991b. Mitochondrial DNA and honey bee biogeography. pp. 131-176 In D. R. Smith [ed.], Diversity in the Genus Apis. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
  • Smith, D. R. and Brown, W. M. 1988. Mitochondrial DNA restriction site polymorphisms in American and Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera). Experientia 44: 257-260.
  • Smith, D. R. and Brown, W. M. 1990. Restriction endonuclease cleavage site and length polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA of Apis mellifera and A. m. carnica (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 83: 81-87.
  • Smith, D. R., Brown, W. M. and Taylor, O. R. Jr. 1989. Neotropical Africanized bees have African mitochondrial DNA. Nature 339: 213-215.
  • Smith, D. R., Slaymaker, A., Palmer, M. and Kaftanolğu, O. 1997. Turkish honey bees belong to the east Mediterranean mitochondrial lineage. Apidologie 28: 269- 27
  • van Zinderen Bakker, E. M. 1976. The evolution of late Quarternary palaeoclimates of southern Africa. Palaeoecology of Africa 9: 160-202.
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Primary Language English
Subjects Structural Biology
Journal Section Review
Authors

Doç.Dr. Deborah R. Smıth This is me

Publication Date August 27, 2002
Published in Issue Year 2002 Volume: 02 Issue: 3

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Vancouver Smıth DDR. Genetic Diversity in Turkish Honey Bees. U. Arı. D.-U. Bee J. 2002;02(3):10-7.

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