Araştırma Makalesi
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Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 27 - 51, 04.07.2019

Öz

The Balkans are usually unjustly overlooked when discussing terrorism and violent extremism in the world today. Although not a region where many terrorist incidents occur, the Balkans are the main ‘suppliers’ of Foreign Terrorist Fighters (FTF-s) who fight in the Middle East. International statistics rank Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania as the biggest sources of FTF-s as per capita of state population. North Macedonia is a part of this reality. 

This article aims to analyse the drivers to violent extremism in this region. It will try to establish that weak state institutions as well as failure to deal with hate crimes, marginalization and discrimination contribute decisively in the rates of FTF-s coming from this region. It will correlate with the poverty, lack of perspective for the youth, and poor educational systems as a separate category of drivers, as well as try to explain the importance of the conflict history as a very important driver to violent extremism. Most of the Balkan countries updated their legislation criminalizing any kind of involvement with foreign armies; however, not all of them have developed comprehensive and transparent strategies for implementation of Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) and Preventing Violent Extremism (PVE) policies. The article will provide recommendations for developing such strategies.

Kaynakça

  • Arifi, B. (2017). Hate Crimes as a Driver to Violent Extremism – Are Victims of Hate Crimes at Risk of Becoming Involved in Violent Extremism? Conference on Hate Crimes in South-East Europe Sarajevo, 8 November 2016 (pp. 205-226). Sarajevo: Faculty of Criminal Justice, Criminology and Security Studies, University of Sarajevo.
  • Barret, R. Foreign Fighters in Syria. 2014: Soufan Group.
  • Bartlett, J., & Birdwell, J. (2010). From Suspects to Citizens: Preventing violent extremism in a Big Society. London: Demos.
  • Beslin, J., & Ignjatijevic, M. (2017). Balkan foreign ghters: from Syria to Ukraine. Brief Issue , 1-4.
  • Bogdanovski, A. (2014, September). We did criminalize it – now what? Western Balkans response to the foreign fighters threat. Retrieved August 3, 2016, from Analytica MK: http://www.analyticamk.org/images/stories/files/2014/Foreign_Fighters.pdf
  • Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into Violent Extremism II: A Review of Conceptual Models and Empirical Research. Journal of Strategic Security , 4 (4), 37-62.
  • Bossong, R. (2014). EU cooperation on terrorism prevention and violent radicalization: frustrated ambitions or new forms of EU security governance? Cambridge Review of International Affairs , 27 (1), 66-82.
  • Briggs, R. (2010). Community engagement for counterterrorism: lessons from the United Kingdom. International Affairs , 86 (4), 971–981.
  • Davies, L. (2018). Review of Educational Initiatives in Counter-Extremsism Internationally: What works? Gothenburg: The Segerstedt Institute.
  • Denoeux, G., & Carter, L. (2009). Development Assistance and Countering Extremism: A Guide to Programming. Washington: USAID.
  • European Commission. (2016). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions supporting the prevention of radicalisation leading to violent extremismSupporting the Prevention of Radicalisaztion Leading to Violent Extremism. Brussels: Euroepan Commission.
  • European Union. (2002, July 13). Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism. Retrieved February 25, 2018, from EU: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:164:0003:0003:EN:PDF
  • Feddes, A., Mann, L., & Doosje, B. (2015). Increasing self-esteem and empathy to prevent violent radicalization: a longitudinal quantitative evaluation of a resilience training focused on adolescents with a dual identity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 45 (7), 400–411.
  • Goede, M., & Simon, S. (2013). Governing Future Radicals in Europe. Antipode , 45 (2), 315–335.
  • Hassan, M. (2012). Understanding Drivers of Violent Extremism: The Case of al-Shabab and Somali Youth. CTC Sentinel , 5 (8), 18-21.
  • Igric, G. (2016). Balkan Jihadists The Radicalisation and Recruitment of Fighters in Syria and Iraq. Balkan Investigative Reportin Network.
  • Jacobsen, A. (2017). Pushes and Pulls of Radicalisation into Violent Islamist Extremism and Prevention Measures Targeting these: Comparing Men and Women. Malmö: Malmö University.
  • Jakupi, R., & Kelmendi, V. (2017). Women in VIolent Extremism: Lessons Learned from Kosovo. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Jones, J. (2017, January 18). Drivers of Violent Extremism. Retrieved February 24, 2018, from Center for International Private Enterprise: http://www.cipe.org/publications/detail/drivers-violent-extremism
  • Knudsen, R. A. (2017). Radicalization and foreign ghters in the Kosovo context - An analysis of international media coverage of the phenomena. Oslo: Norwegian Institute of International Affairs.
  • Kosovar Center for Security Studies. (2017). Kosovo Security Barometer - Citizens’ perceptions on Violent Extremism. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Kursani, S. (2015). Report inquiring into the causes and consequences of Kosovo citizens’ involvement as foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Muji, A. (2017). Reintegration of returining foreign fighters: what approach best suits Kosovo? Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Perry, V. (2016). Initiatives to Prevent/Counter Violent Extremism in South East Europe - A Survey of Regional Issues, Initiatives and Opportunities. Sarajevo: Regional Cooperation Council.
  • Perry, V. (2017). Reflections on Efforts to Prevent and Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism in the Balkans. Sarajevo: Democratization Policy Council.
  • Precht, T. (2007). Home grown terrorism and Islamist radi-calisation in Europe: From conversion to terrorism - An assessment of the factors influencing violent Islamist extremism and suggestions for counter radicalisation measures. København: Ministry of Justice, Danmark.
  • Qehaja, F., Përteshi, S., & Vrajolli, M. (2017). Mapping the state of play of institutional and community involvement in countering violent extremism in Kosovo. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Rahimi, S., & Graumans, R. (2016). Reconsidering the Relationship Between Integration and Radicalization. Journal for Deradicalisation , 28-62.
  • Ranstorp, M. (2016). The Root Causes of Violent Extremism. RAN Center of Excellence.
  • Ranstorp, M. (2010). Understanding Violent Radicalisation - Terrorist and Jihadist Movements in Europe. London/New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Regional Cooperation Council. (2016). Southeast Europe Regional expert workshop on “Factors and drivers underlying radicalization and violent extremism leading to terrorism”, Conclusions. Southeast Europe Regional expert workshop . Sarajevo: RCC.
  • Richards, A. (2011). The problem with ‘radicalization’: the remit of ‘Prevent’ and the need to refocus on terrorism in the UK. International Affairs , 87 (1), 143–152.
  • Schmid, A. (2013). Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review. The Hague: International Centre for Counterterrorism.
  • Sedgwick, M. (2010). The Concept of Radicalization as a Source of Confusion. Terrorism and Political Violence , 22 (4), 479-494.
  • Selimi, K., & Stojkovski, F. (2016). Assessment of Macedonia’s Efforts in Countering Violent Extremism, View from Civil Society. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shabani, S. (2017). Saving schools from violent extremism: a broader approach to CVE with a focus on educational capacities. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shabani, S., & Kadri, A. (2018). Working Towards Resilient Communities. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015). Breaking Down the Ethnic Albanian Foreign Fighters Phenomenon. Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 98 (4), 460-477.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015). Ethnic Albanian Foreign Fighters in Iraq and Syria. CTC Sentinel , 8 (4), 11-14.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015, January 29). The Western Balkans: A Jihadist Pipeline to Syria and Iraq. Retrieved July 30, 2016, from Fikra Forum: http://fikraforum.org/?p=6353
  • Silke, A. (2014). Prisons, Terrorism and Extremsism: Critical Issues in Management, Radicalisation and Reform. London/New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Silke, A. (2011). The Psychology of Counter-Terrorism. London/New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • The Soufan Group. (2015). Foreign Fighters: An Updated Assessment of the Flow of Foreign Fighters into Syria and Iraq. New York: TSG.
  • Thomas, P. (2010). Failed and Friendless: The UK’s ‘Preventing Violent Extremism’ Programme. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations , 12 (3), 442–458.
  • Transforming Violent Extremism - A Peacebuilder’s Guide. Search for Common Ground.
  • United States Institute of Peace. (2015). Charting a New Course, Thought for Action Kit - Women Preventing Violent Extremism. Washington: USIP.
  • USAID. (2009). Guide to Drivers of Violent Extremism. Washington: USAID.
  • USAID. (2009). Summary of Factors Affecting Violent Extremism. Washington: USAID.
  • USAID. (2011). The Development Response to Violent Extremism and Insurgency - Putting Principles into Practice. Washington: USAID.
  • Vidino, L. (2010). Countering Radicalisation in America: Lessons from Europe. Washington: United States Institute of Peace.
  • Vidino, L. (2009). Europe’s New Security Dilemma. The Washington Quarterly , 32 (4), 61-75 .
  • Zeiger, S., & Aly, A. (2015). Countering VIolent Extremism: Developing an evidence-base for policy and practice. Perth, WA, Australia: Hedayah and Curtin University.

Güney Doğu Avrupa’da Şiddet İçeren Aşırılığa İten Güçler – Kuzey Makedonya Bağlamı

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 27 - 51, 04.07.2019

Öz

Bugün dünyada terörizm ve şiddet içeren radikalizm tartışılırken Balkanlar genellikle hakettiği ilgiyi görememektedir. Pek çok terör olayının yaşandığı bir yer olmasa da, Balkanlar Orta Doğu’da savaşan Yabancı Terörist Savaşçılarının (FTF) geldikleri bölge itibariyle önemli konumunda bulunmaktadır. İstatistiklere göre uluslararası sıralamada, Kosova, Bosna-Hersek ve Arnavutluk’u kişi başına düşen en büyük FTF kaynağı olarak yer almaktadırlar. Kuzey Makedonya Cumhuriyeti de bu gerçeğin dışında değildir.
Bu makale, bölgedeki şiddet içeren radikalizme neden olan itici güçleri incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Devlet kurumlarının etkisizleşmesinin yanı sıra nefret suçlarıyla başa çıkmama, ötekileştirme ve ayrımcılığın bu bölgeden gelen FTF’lerin oranlarıyla alakalı olduğunu ve belirleyici bir katkıda bulunduğunu öngörmekteyim. Bunun yanında şiddet içeren radikalizm yoksulluk, genç nüfusun gelecekten ümitli olmayışı, ve ayrı bir kategori olarak başarısız eğitim sistemleriyle ilgili olduğunu ve şiddet içeren çatışma tarihinin radikalleşme için çok önemli bir itici güç olduğunu açıklamaya çalışacağım. Balkan ülkelerinin çoğu, vatandaşlarının yabancı devletlerin ordusuna katılımının her türlüsünü suç olarak niteleyenyasal düzenlemeyi güncelledi ancak, şiddet içeren radikalizmle mücadele ve radikalizmi önleme politikalarının uygulanması için kapsamlı ve şeffaf stratejileri henüz geliştirmedi. Makale, bu tür stratejilerin geliştirilmesi için öneriler sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Arifi, B. (2017). Hate Crimes as a Driver to Violent Extremism – Are Victims of Hate Crimes at Risk of Becoming Involved in Violent Extremism? Conference on Hate Crimes in South-East Europe Sarajevo, 8 November 2016 (pp. 205-226). Sarajevo: Faculty of Criminal Justice, Criminology and Security Studies, University of Sarajevo.
  • Barret, R. Foreign Fighters in Syria. 2014: Soufan Group.
  • Bartlett, J., & Birdwell, J. (2010). From Suspects to Citizens: Preventing violent extremism in a Big Society. London: Demos.
  • Beslin, J., & Ignjatijevic, M. (2017). Balkan foreign ghters: from Syria to Ukraine. Brief Issue , 1-4.
  • Bogdanovski, A. (2014, September). We did criminalize it – now what? Western Balkans response to the foreign fighters threat. Retrieved August 3, 2016, from Analytica MK: http://www.analyticamk.org/images/stories/files/2014/Foreign_Fighters.pdf
  • Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into Violent Extremism II: A Review of Conceptual Models and Empirical Research. Journal of Strategic Security , 4 (4), 37-62.
  • Bossong, R. (2014). EU cooperation on terrorism prevention and violent radicalization: frustrated ambitions or new forms of EU security governance? Cambridge Review of International Affairs , 27 (1), 66-82.
  • Briggs, R. (2010). Community engagement for counterterrorism: lessons from the United Kingdom. International Affairs , 86 (4), 971–981.
  • Davies, L. (2018). Review of Educational Initiatives in Counter-Extremsism Internationally: What works? Gothenburg: The Segerstedt Institute.
  • Denoeux, G., & Carter, L. (2009). Development Assistance and Countering Extremism: A Guide to Programming. Washington: USAID.
  • European Commission. (2016). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions supporting the prevention of radicalisation leading to violent extremismSupporting the Prevention of Radicalisaztion Leading to Violent Extremism. Brussels: Euroepan Commission.
  • European Union. (2002, July 13). Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism. Retrieved February 25, 2018, from EU: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:164:0003:0003:EN:PDF
  • Feddes, A., Mann, L., & Doosje, B. (2015). Increasing self-esteem and empathy to prevent violent radicalization: a longitudinal quantitative evaluation of a resilience training focused on adolescents with a dual identity. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 45 (7), 400–411.
  • Goede, M., & Simon, S. (2013). Governing Future Radicals in Europe. Antipode , 45 (2), 315–335.
  • Hassan, M. (2012). Understanding Drivers of Violent Extremism: The Case of al-Shabab and Somali Youth. CTC Sentinel , 5 (8), 18-21.
  • Igric, G. (2016). Balkan Jihadists The Radicalisation and Recruitment of Fighters in Syria and Iraq. Balkan Investigative Reportin Network.
  • Jacobsen, A. (2017). Pushes and Pulls of Radicalisation into Violent Islamist Extremism and Prevention Measures Targeting these: Comparing Men and Women. Malmö: Malmö University.
  • Jakupi, R., & Kelmendi, V. (2017). Women in VIolent Extremism: Lessons Learned from Kosovo. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Jones, J. (2017, January 18). Drivers of Violent Extremism. Retrieved February 24, 2018, from Center for International Private Enterprise: http://www.cipe.org/publications/detail/drivers-violent-extremism
  • Knudsen, R. A. (2017). Radicalization and foreign ghters in the Kosovo context - An analysis of international media coverage of the phenomena. Oslo: Norwegian Institute of International Affairs.
  • Kosovar Center for Security Studies. (2017). Kosovo Security Barometer - Citizens’ perceptions on Violent Extremism. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Kursani, S. (2015). Report inquiring into the causes and consequences of Kosovo citizens’ involvement as foreign fighters in Syria and Iraq. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Muji, A. (2017). Reintegration of returining foreign fighters: what approach best suits Kosovo? Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Perry, V. (2016). Initiatives to Prevent/Counter Violent Extremism in South East Europe - A Survey of Regional Issues, Initiatives and Opportunities. Sarajevo: Regional Cooperation Council.
  • Perry, V. (2017). Reflections on Efforts to Prevent and Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism in the Balkans. Sarajevo: Democratization Policy Council.
  • Precht, T. (2007). Home grown terrorism and Islamist radi-calisation in Europe: From conversion to terrorism - An assessment of the factors influencing violent Islamist extremism and suggestions for counter radicalisation measures. København: Ministry of Justice, Danmark.
  • Qehaja, F., Përteshi, S., & Vrajolli, M. (2017). Mapping the state of play of institutional and community involvement in countering violent extremism in Kosovo. Prishtina: Kosovar Center for Security Studies.
  • Rahimi, S., & Graumans, R. (2016). Reconsidering the Relationship Between Integration and Radicalization. Journal for Deradicalisation , 28-62.
  • Ranstorp, M. (2016). The Root Causes of Violent Extremism. RAN Center of Excellence.
  • Ranstorp, M. (2010). Understanding Violent Radicalisation - Terrorist and Jihadist Movements in Europe. London/New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Regional Cooperation Council. (2016). Southeast Europe Regional expert workshop on “Factors and drivers underlying radicalization and violent extremism leading to terrorism”, Conclusions. Southeast Europe Regional expert workshop . Sarajevo: RCC.
  • Richards, A. (2011). The problem with ‘radicalization’: the remit of ‘Prevent’ and the need to refocus on terrorism in the UK. International Affairs , 87 (1), 143–152.
  • Schmid, A. (2013). Radicalisation, De-Radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review. The Hague: International Centre for Counterterrorism.
  • Sedgwick, M. (2010). The Concept of Radicalization as a Source of Confusion. Terrorism and Political Violence , 22 (4), 479-494.
  • Selimi, K., & Stojkovski, F. (2016). Assessment of Macedonia’s Efforts in Countering Violent Extremism, View from Civil Society. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shabani, S. (2017). Saving schools from violent extremism: a broader approach to CVE with a focus on educational capacities. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shabani, S., & Kadri, A. (2018). Working Towards Resilient Communities. Skopje: Analytica Think Tank.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015). Breaking Down the Ethnic Albanian Foreign Fighters Phenomenon. Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 98 (4), 460-477.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015). Ethnic Albanian Foreign Fighters in Iraq and Syria. CTC Sentinel , 8 (4), 11-14.
  • Shtuni, A. (2015, January 29). The Western Balkans: A Jihadist Pipeline to Syria and Iraq. Retrieved July 30, 2016, from Fikra Forum: http://fikraforum.org/?p=6353
  • Silke, A. (2014). Prisons, Terrorism and Extremsism: Critical Issues in Management, Radicalisation and Reform. London/New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Silke, A. (2011). The Psychology of Counter-Terrorism. London/New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  • The Soufan Group. (2015). Foreign Fighters: An Updated Assessment of the Flow of Foreign Fighters into Syria and Iraq. New York: TSG.
  • Thomas, P. (2010). Failed and Friendless: The UK’s ‘Preventing Violent Extremism’ Programme. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations , 12 (3), 442–458.
  • Transforming Violent Extremism - A Peacebuilder’s Guide. Search for Common Ground.
  • United States Institute of Peace. (2015). Charting a New Course, Thought for Action Kit - Women Preventing Violent Extremism. Washington: USIP.
  • USAID. (2009). Guide to Drivers of Violent Extremism. Washington: USAID.
  • USAID. (2009). Summary of Factors Affecting Violent Extremism. Washington: USAID.
  • USAID. (2011). The Development Response to Violent Extremism and Insurgency - Putting Principles into Practice. Washington: USAID.
  • Vidino, L. (2010). Countering Radicalisation in America: Lessons from Europe. Washington: United States Institute of Peace.
  • Vidino, L. (2009). Europe’s New Security Dilemma. The Washington Quarterly , 32 (4), 61-75 .
  • Zeiger, S., & Aly, A. (2015). Countering VIolent Extremism: Developing an evidence-base for policy and practice. Perth, WA, Australia: Hedayah and Curtin University.
Toplam 52 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Hukuk
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Besa Arifi

Yayımlanma Tarihi 4 Temmuz 2019
Gönderilme Tarihi 28 Şubat 2019
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019 Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Arifi, B. (2019). Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, 7(1), 27-51.
AMA Arifi B. Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology. Temmuz 2019;7(1):27-51.
Chicago Arifi, Besa. “Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context”. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 7, sy. 1 (Temmuz 2019): 27-51.
EndNote Arifi B (01 Temmuz 2019) Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 7 1 27–51.
IEEE B. Arifi, “Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context”, Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, c. 7, sy. 1, ss. 27–51, 2019.
ISNAD Arifi, Besa. “Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context”. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology 7/1 (Temmuz 2019), 27-51.
JAMA Arifi B. Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology. 2019;7:27–51.
MLA Arifi, Besa. “Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context”. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology, c. 7, sy. 1, 2019, ss. 27-51.
Vancouver Arifi B. Drivers to Violent Extremism in South Eastern Europe – the North Macedonian Context. Journal of Penal Law and Criminology. 2019;7(1):27-51.