TY  - JOUR
T1  - TÜRKİYE’DEKİ SPOR KURUMLARININ YÖNETİM KADEMELERİNDE KADIN TEMSİLİNİN İNCELENMESİ: KRİTİK KİTLE KURAMI PERSPEKTİFİ
TT  - AN EXAMINATION OF WOMEN'S REPRESENTATION IN MANAGEMENT LEVELS OF SPORTS INSTITUTIONS IN TÜRKİYE: A CRITICAL MASS THEORY PERSPECTIVE
AU  - Altun Ekinci, Merve
AU  - Ozturk, Pinar
AU  - Koca Arıtan, Canan
PY  - 2025
DA  - September
Y2  - 2025
DO  - 10.33689/spormetre.1616304
JF  - SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi
PB  - Ankara Üniversitesi
WT  - DergiPark
SN  - 1304-284X
SP  - 35
EP  - 52
VL  - 23
IS  - 3
LA  - tr
AB  - Bu araştırmada, Türkiye’de spor kurumlarının yönetim kurullarında kadın temsili Kanter’in Kritik Kitle Kuramı bağlamında incelenmiştir. 2023 verilerine göre gerçekleştirilen analizler, 64 spor federasyonun %40,6’sında (n=26) yönetim kurulunda “Tek-tip grup” olarak sadece erkek yöneticilerin yer aldığını ve yalnızca bir federasyonun (%1,6) “Dengeli grup” kategorisinde olduğunu göstermektedir. Türkiye Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi (TMOK) ve Türkiye Paralimpik Komitesi (TMPK) ise “Eğik grup” özelliği taşımakta olup kadınların yönetim kurulunda temsili %20-40 arasındadır. Bulgular, spor kurumlarının karar alma mekanizmalarında kadınların yetersiz temsil edildiğini, bu durumun kadınların spor kurumlarında çıkarlarını savunma yetilerini sınırladığını ortaya koymaktadır.
KW  - kadın temsili
KW  - kritik kitle kuramı
KW  - spor kurumu
KW  - toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği
N2  - This study analyzes the representation of women on the boards of directors of sports organizations in Turkey through the context of Kanter’s critical mass theory. Data from 2023 indicates that 40.6% (n=26) of the 64 sports federations have only male executives on their boards, categorizing them as “Uniform male board”. Conversely, only one federation (1.6%) falls into the “Balanced board”. The Turkish National Olympic Committee and the Turkish Paralympic Committee exhibit “Tilted board” characteristics, with female representation on their boards ranging from 20% to 40%. The findings highlight the underrepresentation of women in the decision-making processes of sports organizations, which hinders their ability to advocate for their interests.
CR  - Adriaanse, J. A., & Schofield, T. (2013). Analysing gender dynamics in sport governance: A new regimes-based approach. Sport Management Review, 16(4), 498–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2013.01.006
CR  - Adriaanse, J., & Schofield, T. (2014). The impact of gender quotas on gender equality in sport governance. Journal of sport management, 28(5), 485-497.
CR  - Anderson, E. (2008). “I used to think women were weak”: Orthodox masculinity, gender segregation, and sport. Sociological Forum, 23, 257–80.
CR  - Caprais, A., Sabatier, F., & Rubi, S. (2020). Electoral competition and gender quotas: dearth of female applicants or structural resistance? International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 12(3), 349-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2020.1782966
CR  - Connell, R. (2009). Gender in world perspective. Cambridge: Polity
CR  - Craig, K., & Liao, M. (2023). Tackling violence against women and girls in sport: a handbook for policy makers and sports practitioners. UNESCO Publishing. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000386159
CR  - Di Cimbrini, T., Esteban Salvador, L. M., Fernandes, E., Güngör Göksu, G., & Smith, C. (2019). Corporate governance in sport organizations: A gender perspective. Universidad de Zaragoza.
CR  - European Commission. (2014). Gender equality in sport, proposal for strategic actions 2014-2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/sport/events/2013/documents/20131203-gender/final-proposal-1802_en.pdf
CR  - European Parliament. (2002). Women and sport. 
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P5-TA-2003-0269+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN
CR  - European Union. (2022). Towards more gender equality in sport –Recommendations and action plan from the high level group on gender equality in sport. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/10036
CR  - Evans, A., & Pfister, G. (2021). Women in sports leadership: A systematic narrative review. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 56(3), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690220911842
CR  - Ferreira, D. (2015). Board diversity: Should we trust research to inform policy? Corporate Governance: An International Review, 23(2), 108-111.
CR  - Gaston, L., Blundell, M., & Fletcher, T. (2020). Gender diversity in sport leadership: A review of United States of America national governing bodies of sport. Managing Sport and Leisure, 25(6), 402-417. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1719189
CR  - Gaston, L., & Higson, P. (2023). Diversity and inclusion in sport leadership: a longitudinal review of the United States Olympic and Paralympic Committee. Managing Sport and Leisure, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2023.2282586
CR  - Granovetter, M. (1978). Threshold models of collective behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 83(6), 1420-1443.
CR  - Hovden, J. (2012). Discourses and strategies for the inclusion of women in sport–the case of Norway. Sport in Society, 15(3), 287-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2012.653201.
CR  - Hovden, J., Elling, A., & Knoppers, A. (2018). Meta-analysis: Policies and strategies. In Gender diversity in European sport governance (s. 192-204). Routledge.
CR  - International Paralimpic Committee. (2024). Leadership and Equality Committee terms of reference. https://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/2024-04/Leadership%20and%20Equality%20Committee%20ToR.pdf
CR  - International Olympic Committee [IOC]. (2021). Gender equality and inclusion objective 2021-
2024. https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Documents/Beyond-the-Games/Gender-Equality-in-Sport/IOC-Gender-Equality-and-Inclusion-Objectives-2021-2024.pdf
CR  - International Olympic Committee [IOC]. (2024). Portrayal guidelines gender-equal, fair and inclusive representation in sport. https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Documents/Beyond-the-Games/Gender-Equality-in-Sport/IOC-Portrayal-Guidelines.pdf
CR  - International Working Group on Women and Sport [IWG]. (1998). The Windhoek call for action. http://iwg-gti.org/common_up/iwg-new/files/Windhoek_call_for_action_e.pdf
CR  - International Working Group on Women and Sport [IWG]. (2014). From Brighton to Helsinki women and sport progress report (1994-2014). http://iwg-gti.org/common_up/iwg-new/files//Brighton_Plus_Helsinki_2014_ Declaration.pdf
CR  - Jakubowska, H. (2018). Poland: underrepresentation and misrecognition of women in sport leadership. A. Elling, J. Hovden ve A. Knoppers (Eds.), Gender diversity in European sport governance (s. 59-70). Routledge.
CR  - Joecks, J., Pull, K., & Vetter, K. (2013). Gender diversity in the boardroom and firm performance: what exactly constitutes a critical mass? Journal of Business Ethics, 118(1), 61-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1553-6.
CR  - Kadınlar için Spor ve Fiziksel Aktivite Derneği. (2021). Türkiye’de sporda toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği
izleme raporu.  https://www.kasfad.org/turkiyede-sporda-toplumsal-cinsiyet-esitligi-izleme-raporu-2021/
CR  - Kadınlar için Spor ve Fiziksel Aktivite Derneği. (2023). Sporda toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği raporu https://www.kasfad.org/sporda-toplumsal-cinsiyet-esitligi-raporu-2023/
CR  - Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82(5), 965-990.
CR  - Karaçam, M. Ş., & Koca, C. A. (2015). Strategies of women managers in sport organizations: A way of subversion or reproduction of existing gendered field? A. Tatlı, M. Özbilgin ve M. Karatas-Ozkan (Eds.), Pierre Bourdieu, organisation and management (s. 207-228). Routledge.
CR  - Karaçam, M. Ş., & Koca, C. A. (2018). Turkey: men’s resistance to gender equality in sport governance. A. Elling, J. Hovden ve A. Knoppers (Eds.), Gender diversity in European sport governance (s. 25-36). Routledge.
CR  - Karasar, N. (2022). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi: Kavramlar, ilkeler, teknikler (39. baskı). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
CR  - Knoppers, A., McLachlan, F., Spaaij, R., & Smits, F. (2021). Subtexts of research on diversity in sport organizations: Queering intersectional perspectives. Journal of Sport Management, 36(6), 613-622. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2021-0266
CR  - Koca, C., & Öztürk, P. (2015). Gendered perceptions about female managers in Turkish sport organizations.  European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(3), 381-406. https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/16184742.2015.1040046
CR  - Konrad, A. M., Kramer, V., & Erkut, S. (2008). Critical mass: The impact of three or more women on corporate boards. Organizational Dynamics, 37(2), 145-164.
CR  - Lafuente, E., & Vaillant, Y. (2019). Balance rather than critical mass or tokenism: Gender diversity, leadership and performance in financial firms. International Journal of Manpower, 40(5), 894-916.
CR  - Lesch, L., Kerwin, S., & Wicker, P. (2023). Women representation and organisational characteristics in sport governance: Implications for gender policy and practice. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 15(3), 493-510. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2023.2215788
CR  - Lowen, A., Deaner, R., & Schmitt, E. (2016). Guys and gals going for gold. Journal of Sports Economics, 17(3), 260-285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527002514531791
CR  - Matthews, J., & Piggott, L. (2021). Is gender on the international agenda? Gender Representation and Policy in International Sport Governance Final Report.
https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnuxmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/3050318/Final+report++Is+gender+on+the+international+agenda.pdf?sequence=1
CR  - Marcondes, I. M., & Souza, D. L. (2024). Gender (in) equity in the Paralympic Movement? Analyzing the institutional policies of the International Paralympic Committee. Managing Sport and Leisure, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2024.2406798
CR  - Mikkonen, M., Stenvall, J., & Lehtonen, K. (2021). The paradox of gender diversity, organizational outcomes, and recruitment in the boards of national governing bodies of sport. Administrative sciences, 11(4), 141.
CR  - Napp, C., & Breda, T. (2023). The gender-equality paradox in chess holds among young players: A commentary on the Vishkin (2022) study. Psychological Science, 34(12), 1404-1410. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976231202450
CR  - Öztürk, P., & Koca, C. (2018). Uluslararası politika belgeleri kapsamında spor ve toplumsal cinsiyet politikaları. Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 29(3), 114-130.
CR  - Piggott, L. V., & Pike, E. C. (2020). ‘CEO equals man’: Gender and informal organisational practices in English sport governance. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 55(7), 1009-1025. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690219865980
CR  - Piggott, L. V., & Matthews, J. J. (2024). Gender representation and policy implementation in the governance of international paralympic organizations. In Research Handbook on Gender and Diversity in Sport Management (s. 37-51). Edward Elgar Publishing.
CR  - Pike, E., White, A., Matthews, J., Southon, S., & Piggott, L. (2018). Women and sport leadership: a case study of a development programme. L. Mansfield,  J. Caudwell, B. Wheaton and B. Watson (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of feminism and sport, leisure and physical education (s. 809-823). Palgrave Macmillan.
CR  - Piscopo, J. M. (2015). States as gender equality activists: The evolution of quota laws in Latin America. Latin American Politics and Society, 57(3), 27-49.
CR  - Post, C., & Byron, K. (2015). Women on boards and firm financial performance: A meta-analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 58(5), 1546-1571. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amj.2013.0319
CR  - Rogers, A. A., Cook, R. E., & Guerrero, K. (2022). Is my femininity a liability? Longitudinal associations between girls’ experiences of gender discrimination, internalizing symptoms, and gender identity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(2), 335-347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01571-y
CR  - Salvador, M. L. E., Fernandes, E. P., Di Cimbrini, T., Smith, C., & Göksu, G. G. (2023). Female chairs on the boards of European National Sports Federations: a comparative study. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 39(4), 497-515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/GM-10-2022-0328
CR  - Sancar, S. (2023). Kadın hakları siyaseti: Siyasetin eril karakterini değiştirmek. Mülkiye Dergisi, 47(1), 447-466.
CR  - Schelling, T. C. (1978). Egonomics, or the art of self-management. The American Economic Review, 68(2), 290-294.
CR  - Sisjord, M. K., Fasting, K., & Sand, T. S. (2017). The impact of gender quotas in leadership in Norwegian organised sport. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 9(3), 505-519.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2017.1287761
CR  - Skirstad, B. (2009). Gender policy and organizational change: A contextual approach. Sport Management Review, 12(4), 202-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2009.03.003
CR  - Soler, S., Moragas, M., & Vilanova, A. (2018). Catalonia: The voices of female chairs of sports clubs. A. Elling, J. Hovden ve A. Knoppers (Eds.), Gender diversity in European sport governance (s. 46-56). Routledge.
CR  - Sotiriadou, P., & ve de Haan, D. (2019). Women and leadership: Advancing gender equity policies in sport leadership through sport governance. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 11(3), 365-383.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2019.1577902
CR  - Spor Kulüpleri ve Spor Federasyonları Kanunu (No: 7405), Resmî Gazete Sayı 31821. (26. 04. 2022).
https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2022/04/20220426-8.htm
CR  - Sumbas, A. (2015). Kadının politik temsil meselesi üzerine bir tartışma. İstanbul Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 53, 103-121.
CR  - Terjesen, S., Sealy, R., & Singh, V. (2009). Women directors on corporate boards: A review and research agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 17, 320–337.
CR  - Torchia, M. (2013). Women directors and corporate innovation: A critical mass perspective. S. Machold, M. Huse, K. Hansen  ve M. Brogi (Eds.), Getting women on to corporate boards (s. 126-135). Edward Elgar Publishing.
CR  - Torchia, M., Calabro, A., & Huse, M. (2011). Women directors on corporate boards: From tokenism to critical mass. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(2), 299–317.
CR  - Türkiye Briç Federasyonu. (2020). Disiplin talimatı. https://shgm.gsb.gov.tr/Public/images/SGM/Federasyon/51807T%C3%BCrkiye%20Bri%C3%A7%20Federasyonu%20Disiplin%20Talimat%C4%B1.pdf
CR  - Türkiye Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi. (2021). Türkiye Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi tüzüğü. https://api.olimpiyat.org.tr/upload/Menu/523527_TMOK_TUZUK_2021.pdf
CR  - Türkiye Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi. (2023). Cinsiyet eşitliği eylem planı (2023-2025). https://api.olimpiyat.org.tr/upload/Menu/387749_TMOK_Cinsiyet_Esitligi_Eylem_Plani_2023-2025.pdf
CR  - Türkiye Milli Olimpiyat Komitesi. (2024). 2024 Faaliyet raporu.
https://api.olimpiyat.org.tr/upload/1741699206_tmok_faaliyet_raporu_2024_web.pdf
CR  - Türkiye Milli Paralimpik Komitesi. (2002). Türkiye Milli Paralimpik Komitesi ana tüzüğü https://www.tmpk.org.tr/tuzuk/
CR  - Türkiye Satranç Federasyonu. (2022). Başkanımıza “Avrupa’nın üstün başarılı yöneticisi" ödülü.
https://www.tsf.org.tr/guncel-haberler/16409-baskanimiza-avrupa-nin-ustun-basarili-yoneticisi-odulu
CR  - UN Women. (2020). Sports for generation equality framework. 
https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/News%20and%20events/Stories/2020/Sport-GenerationEquality.pdf
CR  - UN Women. (2021). Toplumsal cinsiyete duyarlı spor kurumu rehberi. https://eca.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Field%20Office%20ECA/Attachments/Publications/2021/7/UN%20Women%20Guide%20ShortVersion%20TUR-min.pdf
CR  - Ward, A. M., & Forker, J. (2017). Financial management effectiveness and board gender diversity in member-governed, community financial institutions. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(2), 351-366.
CR  - Wicker, P., Feiler, S., & Breuer, C. (2022). Board gender diversity, critical masses, and organizational problems of non-profit sport clubs, European Sport Management Quarterly, 22(2), 251-271. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2020.1777453
CR  - Wicker, P., & Kerwin, S. (2020). Women representation in the boardroom of Canadian sport governing bodies: structural and financial characteristics of three organizational clusters. Managing Sport and Leisure, 27, 499 - 512. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1825987
CR  - Women’s Sports Foundation. (2022). Women in the 2022 Olympic and Paralympic Games, an analysis of participation, leadership, and media coverage. https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/2022-Olympic-and-Paralympic-Report.pdf
CR  - World Economic Forum. (2024). Global gender gap insight report 2024.  https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2024.pdf
CR  - Valiente, C. (2020). The impact of gender quotas in sport management: the case of Spain. Sport in Society, 5, 1017-1034. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2020.1819244
CR  - Vishkin, A., Slepian, M. L., & Galinsky, A. D. (2022). The gender-equality paradox and optimal distinctiveness: more gender-equal societies have more gendered names. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(2), 490-499.
UR  - https://doi.org/10.33689/spormetre.1616304
L1  - https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4505689
ER  -