TY  - JOUR
T1  - Economic and Social Effects of Pandemics on Globalization and Xenophobia in Eurasia
TT  - Pandemilerin Avrasya’da Küreselleşme ve Yabancı Düşmanlığı Üzerindeki Ekonomik ve Sosyal Etkileri
AU  - Tulun, Teoman Ertuğrul
PY  - 2025
DA  - November
Y2  - 2025
DO  - 10.54558/jiss.1696148
JF  - Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi
JO  - ÇAKÜ SBED
PB  - Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi
WT  - DergiPark
SN  - 1309-3738
SP  - 390
EP  - 403
VL  - 16
IS  - 2
LA  - en
AB  - Aim: This article aims to analyze the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on globalization processes, the emergence of new forms of discrimination triggered by the pandemic, and the implications for current social and economic realities, with a particular focus on Central Asian countries. Considering the historical role of pandemics in transforming societies and economies, the study provides a comprehensive assessment of the global economic downturn, unemployment, poverty, and social discrimination induced by COVID-19.Methods: A comparative historical analysis was conducted, juxtaposing the societal impacts of major past pandemics (Black Death, Spanish flu) with those of COVID-19. Secondary data from international organizations and reputable survey institutions were utilized to evaluate unemployment, economic growth, and incidents of racist-xenophobic violence in Western European and Central Asian countries.Results: The COVID-19 pandemic caused severe disruptions in global supply chains-the arteries of economic globalization-leading to a marked contraction in world trade and economic growth. Government measures such as border closures, quarantines, and mobility restrictions exacerbated job losses and disproportionately affected vulnerable groups, especially youth and women. The climate of fear and uncertainty fuelled by the pandemic increased racist and xenophobic attitudes toward “others” (foreigners, migrants, ethnic minorities), conceptualized as “xeno-racism.” While such discriminatory behaviors were widely reported in Western countries, no significant evidence was found in Central Asia, though the region suffered deep economic impacts.Conclusion: The research concludes that while COVID-19 will not end globalization, neglecting the human factor may inflict greater harm on globalization and the economy than the pandemic itself. Ongoing and future studies are needed to fully understand the long-term consequences of the pandemic on economies and societies.Originality: This study highlights that pandemics generate lasting effects not only on health but also on social cohesion and economic structures, emphasizing the emergence of xeno-racism as a distinctive phenomenon during the current pandemic.
KW  - COVID-19
KW  - economic globalization
KW  - global value chains
KW  - stigmatization
KW  - xenophobia.
N2  - Amaç: Bu çalışma, COVID-19 pandemisinin küreselleşme süreçleri üzerindeki etkilerini, pandeminin yeni ayrımcılık biçimlerini nasıl tetiklediğini ve özellikle Orta Asya ülkelerinde mevcut toplumsal ve ekonomik sorunlara olan yansımalarını analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Pandemilerin tarihsel olarak toplumların ve ekonomilerin dönüşümünde oynadığı rol göz önüne alınarak, COVID-19’un küresel düzeyde yarattığı ekonomik daralma, işsizlik, yoksulluk ve ayrımcılık gibi sosyal sonuçların kapsamlı bir değerlendirmesi hedeflenmiştir.Yöntem: Araştırmada karşılaştırmalı tarihsel analiz yöntemi kullanılmış; Kara Veba ve İspanyol Gribi gibi önceki büyük pandemilerin toplumsal ve ekonomik etkileri ile COVID-19’un sonuçları karşılaştırılmıştır. Ayrıca, uluslararası kuruluşlar ve güvenilir veri sağlayıcılarının ikincil verileri ile Batı Avrupa ve Orta Asya ülkelerine ilişkin işsizlik, ekonomik büyüme ve ırkçı-ayrımcı şiddet olayları istatistikleri değerlendirilmiştir. Orta Asya ülkeleri için bölgesel raporlar ve uluslararası kuruluşların güncel verileri temel alınmıştır.Bulgular: COVID-19 pandemisi, küresel tedarik zincirlerinde ciddi kesintilere yol açarak dünya ticaretinde ve ekonomik büyümede belirgin bir daralma yaratmıştır. Hükümetlerin sınır kapatma, karantina ve hareket kısıtlamaları gibi önlemleri, istihdam kayıplarını artırmış ve özellikle gençler ile kadınlar başta olmak üzere kırılgan grupları orantısız şekilde etkilemiştir. Pandeminin yarattığı korku ve belirsizlik ortamı, “öteki” olarak görülen gruplara (yabancılar, göçmenler, etnik azınlıklar) yönelik ırkçı ve yabancı düşmanı tutumların artmasına neden olmuş, bu durum “xeno-ırkçılık” kavramı ile açıklanmıştır. Batı Avrupa’da ayrımcı şiddet olaylarında artış gözlenirken, Orta Asya’da bu tür davranışlara dair belirgin bir veri bulunmamıştır. Orta Asya’da ise ekonomik etkiler, özellikle gelir kaybı, işsizlik, göçmen dövizlerinde azalma ve kadınların işgücü piyasasındaki kırılganlığı şeklinde ortaya çıkmıştır.Sonuç: COVID-19 pandemisi, küreselleşmeyi sona erdirmemiş; ancak ekonomik ve sosyal eşitsizlikleri derinleştirmiştir. Pandemi, küreselleşmenin kazananları ile kaybedenleri arasındaki uçurumu artırmış, toplumsal dayanışma ve adaletin önemini bir kez daha ortaya koymuştur. Pandemi sonrası dönemde, sosyal sigorta sistemlerinin güçlendirilmesi ve kırılgan grupların desteklenmesi gerekliliği vurgulanmaktadır.Özgünlük: Bu çalışma, pandemilerin sadece sağlık değil, aynı zamanda toplumsal ayrışma ve ekonomik yapı üzerinde de kalıcı etkiler yarattığını, özellikle xeno-ırkçılık kavramının güncel pandemiyle birlikte öne çıktığını vurgulamaktadır.
CR  - Acemoğlu, D. & James A. Robinson. (2005). Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
CR  - Acemoğlu, D. & James A. Robinson. (2019). The Narrow Corridor: States, Societies, and the Fate of Liberty. New York: Penguin Books.
CR  - Acemoğlu, D. & Pierre Yared. (2010). Political limits to globalization. American Economic Review 100(2), 83-88. doi:10.1257/aer.100.2.83.
CR  - Altman, S. A. (2020). Will Covid-19 have a lasting impact on globalization? Harvard Business Review, May 20. https://hbr.org/2020/05/will-covid-19-have-a-lasting-impact-on-globalization
CR  - Akiner, S. (1997). Between tradition and modernity: The dilemma facing contemporary Central Asian society. Religion, State & Society, 25(2), 162-177.
CR  - Baldwin, R. (2013). Global supply chains: Why they emerged, why they matter, and where they are going. In Global Value Chains in a Changing World, edited by Deborah K. Elms and Patrick Low, 13-59. Geneva: World Trade Organization.
CR  - Bauomy, J. (2020). COVID-19 and xenophobia: Why outbreaks are often accompanied by racism. Euronews, March 6. https://www.euronews.com/2020/03/05/covid-19-and-xenophobia-why-outbreaks-are-often-accompanied-by-racism
CR  - Bunderministerium des Innern, für Bau & Heimat. (2020). Politisch motivierte Kriminalität im Jahr 2019. Bunderministerium des Innern, für Bau und Heimat, May 12. https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/downloads/DE/veroeffentlichungen/2020/pmk-2019.pdf?__blob=publica tionFile&v=11#:~:text=Von%20den%20insgesamt%20erfassten%20politisch,die%20f%C3%BCr%20unsere%20freiheitliche%20demokratische
CR  - Carvalho, S. & Mark Z. (2001). The International Health Regulations in Historical Perspective. In Plagues and Politics: Infectious Disease and International Policy, edited by Andrew T. Price-Smith, 235-261. New York: Palgrave.
CEIC Data. Kazakhstan Unemployment Rate.
CR  - COVID-19 Working Group. (2020). COVID-19, globalization and the aftermath. Center For Eurasian Studies (AVİM), June 18. https://avim.org.tr/en/Analiz/COVID-19-GLOBALIZATION-AND-THE-AFTERMATH
Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (KazStat). Annual Report, 2024.
CR  - Deutscher Bundestag. (2020). Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Petra Pau, Dr. André Hahn, Gökay Akbulut, weiterer Abgeordneter und der Fraktion DIE LINKE. Deutscher Bundestag, August 6. https://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/19/215/1921507.pdf
CR  - Dietz, J. E. & David R. Black, eds. (2012). Pandemic Planning. New York: CRC Press.
CR  - The Economist. (2020). Globalisation Unwound: Has Covid-19 Killed Globalisation? The Economist, May 14. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/05/14/has-covid-19-killed-globalisation
CR  - Epstein, P. R. (2001). Climate, Ecology and Human Health. In Plagues and Politics: Infectious Disease and International Policy, edited by Andrew T. Price-Smith, 27-58. New York: Palgrave.
CR  - Essed, P. (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. London: Sage.
CR  - Five Books. (2021). The Best Books on Globalization recommended by Larry Summers. Five Books. Accessed October 10, 2021. https://fivebooks.com/best-books/larry-summers-globalization/
CR  - Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
CR  - Gingerich, D. & Vogler J. P. (2020). Pandemics and Political Development: The Electoral Legacy of the Black Death in Germany. SSRN, November 23. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3578732
CR  - Green, M. S. (2020) Did the hesitancy in declaring COVID-19 a pandemic reflect a need to redefine the term? The Lancet, 395(10229), 1034-1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30630-9.
CR  - Heathershaw, J. & Schatz, E. (2017). The logic of clan politics: evidence from the central ASIAN survey. Central Asian Survey, 36(1), 1-18.
CR  - Horrox, R. (1994). The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
CR  - Hotamışlıgil, G. (2020). Coronavirus and its effects on the global economy. DTİK, April 1. http://dtik.org.tr/UserFiles/Document/Coronavirus-and-Its-Effects-on-the-Global-Economy.pdf
CR  - Howard-Jones, N. (1975). The Scientific Background of the International Sanitary Conferences 1851-1938. Geneva: World Health Organization.
CR  - ILO (International Labour Organization). (2020a). ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of Work. Fourth Edition: Updated Estimates and Analysis. International Labour Organization, May 27. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/briefingnote/wcms_745963.pdf
CR  - ILO (International Labour Organization). (2020b). ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the World of Work. Fifth Edition: Updated Estimates and Analysis. International Labour Organization, June 30. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/briefingnote/wcms_749399.pdf
CR  - ILO (International Labour Organization). (2020c). As Jobs Crisis Deepens, ILO Warns of Uncertain and Incomplete Labour Market Recovery. International Labour Organization, June 30. https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_749398/lang--en/index.htm.
CR  - IMF (International Monetary Fund). (2020). World Economic Outlook, April 2020: The Great Lockdown. International Monetary Fund, April. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/04/14/weo-april-2020
CR  - James, H. (2009). The Creation and Destruction of Value: The Globalization Cycle. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
CR  - Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2021). What Is Coronavirus? Johns Hopkins Medicine, May 19. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus
CR  - Kandiyoti, D. (2002). Post-Soviet institutional design: clan, tribe and patrimonialism in Central Asia. Central Asian Survey, 21(1), 43-64.
CR  - Khalid, A. (2007). Islam after Communism: Religion and Politics in Central Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
CR  - Kohn, G. C. (2008). Encyclopaedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. 3rd ed. New York: Facts on File.
CR  - Last, J. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
CR  - McMillen, C. W. (2016). Pandemics: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
OSCE Hate Crime Reporting. https://hatecrime.osce.org/reporting/kazakhstan
CR  - Pietrabissa, G. & Simpson, S. G. (2020). Psychological consequences of social during COVID-19 Outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology 11(2201). doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02201.
CR  - Price-Smith, A. T. (2001). Disease and International Development. In Plagues and Politics Infectious Disease and International Policy, edited by Andrew T. Price-Smith, 117-150. New York: Palgrave.
CR  - Psilos, P. & Gary G.  (2011). Workforce Development in the Global Economy: Linking Skills and Capabilities to Upgrading. In Workforce Development and Global Value Chains in Developing Countries, edited by Gereffi, G., Fernandez-Stark, K., and Psilos, P., 1-13. Center for Globalization, Governance, and Competitiveness, Duke University.
CR  - Rodrik, D. (1997). Has Globalization Gone Too Far? Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
CR  - Rodrik, D. (2007). One Economics, Many Recipes: Globalization, Institutions, and Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
CR  - Sayılı, M. & Uyanık, M. (2012). Küresel ekonomik kriz ve etkileri: Tokat ili merkez ilçe gıda sanayi örneği. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3(2), 239-250.
CR  - Sivanandan, A. (2008). Catching History on the Wing: Race, Culture and Globalisation. London: Pluto Press. https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745328348/catching-history-on-the-wing/.
CR  - Snowden, F. M. (2019). Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present. New Have:  Yale University Press.
CR  - Statista. (2019). Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Growth Projections for the U.S., U.K., Germany and Western Europe from 2010 to 2023. Statista, April. https://www.statista.com/statistics/369222/gdp-growth-forecast-western-europe-vs-major-economies/
CR  - Statista. (2020a). Annual Number of Police-Reported Racially Motivated Hate Crimes in England and Wales from 2009/10 to 2019/2020.” Statista, October. https://www.statista.com/statistics/674846/race-crimes-in-england-and-wales/
CR  - Statista. (2020b). Cases of Racial Verbal Violence in Italy from 2017 to 2020. Statista, August. https://www.statista.com/statistics/627248/cases-of-racial-verbal-violence-italy/
CR  - Statista. (2021a). Annual Average Unemployment Rate in Germany from 2005 to 2021. Statista, September. https://www.statista.com/statistics/227005/unemployment-rate-in-germany/#:~:text=Annual%20average%20 uneployment%20rate%20in%20Germany%202004%2D2020&text=This%20statistic%20shows%20the%20annual,rate%20amounted%20to%205.9%20percent
CR  - Statista. (2021b). Germany: Growth Rate of the Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from 2016 to 2026 (Compared to the Previous Year).” Statista, October. https://www.statista.com/statistics/375203/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-germany/
CR  - Statista. (2021c). Unemployment Rate in Italy from 2008 to 2020. Statista, January. https://www.statista.com/statistics/531010/unemployment-rate-italy/
CR  - Statista. (2021d). Unemployment Rate in Italy in 2020, with a Forecast for 2021 and 2022. Statista, May. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1109090/forecasted-unemployment-rate-in-italy/
CR  - Statista. (2021e). Unemployment Rate in the United Kingdom from March 1971 to August 2021. Statista, October. https://www.statista.com/statistics/279898/unemployment-rate-in-the-united-kingdom-uk/
CR  - Sokolov, V. (2017). Social trauma and memory in Central Asian societies. Europe-Asia Studies, 69(2), 230-248.
CR  - Taubenberger, J. K. & David M. M. (2006). 1918 Influenza: The mother of all pandemics. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12(1), 15-22. doi:10.3201/eid1201.050979.
Tengrinews.kz. Interior Ministry on Hate Crimes in Kazakhstan, April 2025.
CR  - Tulun, T. E. (2018). Küreselleşme Süreçlerinin Kutuplaşma ve Yabancı Düşmanlığındaki Rolü: Almanya Örneği [The Role of Globalization Processes in Polarization and Xenophobia: The Case of Germany], Doctoral Thesis, Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, 2018. (YÖKSİS: Tez No 552473)
CR  - Tuna, A. & Türkmendağ, Z. (2023). Covid-19 sürecinde uzaktan çalışmada iş stresi, iş tatmini ve işten ayrılma niyeti. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14(1), 163-184. https://doi.org/10.54558/jiss.1241552
CR  - UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs) (2021). “Everyone Included: Social Impact of COVID-19.” United Nations. Accessed October 10, 2021. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/everyone-included-covid-19.html
CR  - United Nations Secretary-General. (2020). “Launch of Global Humanitarian Response Plan for COVID-19.” United Nations, March 25. https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/press-encounter/2020-03-25/launch-of-global-humanitarian-response-plan-for-covid-19
CR  - Walt, S. M. (2020). The Realist’s Guide to the Coronavirus Outbreak. Foreign Policy, March 9. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/09/coronavirus-economy-globalization-virus-icu-realism/
CR  - White, A. I. R. (2020). Historical Linkages: Epidemic Threat, Economic Risk, and Xenophobia. The Lancet 395 (10232), 1250-1251. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30737-6.
CR  - WHO (World Health Organization)? (2020a). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Situation Report - 94. World Health Organization, April 23. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200423-sitrep-94-covid-19.pdf
CR  - WHO (World Health Organization)? (2020b). Listings of WHO’s Response to COVID-19. World Health Organization, June 29., https://www.who.int/news/item/29-06-2020-covidtimeline
CR  - WHO (World Health Organization). (2020c). Timeline of WHO’s Response to COVID-19. World Health Organization, July 30. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/interactive-timeline
CR  - World Bank. (2021). Europe and Central Asia Economic Update, Fall 2021: Competition and Firm Recovery Post-COVID-19. World Bank Group, October 11. https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/978-1-4648-1802-8
CR  - World Bank. (2021Y). Global Economic Prospects. World Bank. Accessed October 10, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/global-economic-prospects
CR  - World Trade Organization. (2020a). Trade Falls Steeply in First Half of 2020. World Trade Organization, June 22. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres20_e/pr858_e.htm
CR  - World Trade Organization. (2020b). Trade Shows Signs of Rebound from COVID-19, Recovery Still Uncertain.” World Trade Organization, October 6. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres20_e/pr862_e.htm
CR  - World Trade Organization. (2021). World Trade Statistical Review 2020. World Trade Organization. Accessed October 10, 2021. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2020_e/wts20_toc_e.htm
UR  - https://doi.org/10.54558/jiss.1696148
L1  - https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/4855874
ER  -