<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.4 20241031//EN"
        "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.4/JATS-journalpublishing1-4.dtd">
<article  article-type="research-article"        dtd-version="1.4">
            <front>

                <journal-meta>
                                                                <journal-id>hbv-hfd</journal-id>
            <journal-title-group>
                                                                                    <journal-title>Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi</journal-title>
            </journal-title-group>
                            <issn pub-type="ppub">2651-4141</issn>
                                        <issn pub-type="epub">2667-4068</issn>
                                                                                            <publisher>
                    <publisher-name>Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi</publisher-name>
                </publisher>
                    </journal-meta>
                <article-meta>
                                        <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1116449</article-id>
                                                                <article-categories>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="en">
                                                            <subject>Law in Context</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="tr">
                                                            <subject>Hukuk</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                    </article-categories>
                                                                                                                                                        <title-group>
                                                                                                                        <article-title>1876’DAN 2017’YE DEVLET BAŞKANLARININ ANAYASAL GÜÇLERİ</article-title>
                                                                                                                                                                                                <trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
                                    <trans-title>CONSTITUTIONAL POWERS OF HEADS OF STATE FROM 1876 TO 2017</trans-title>
                                </trans-title-group>
                                                                                                    </title-group>
            
                                                    <contrib-group content-type="authors">
                                                                        <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0244-4129</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Demirkol</surname>
                                    <given-names>Özhan</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>NİĞDE ÖMER HALİSDEMİR ÜNİVERSİTESİ, İKTİSADİ VE İDARİ BİLİMLER FAKÜLTESİ, SİYASET BİLİMİ VE ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER BÖLÜMÜ, SİYASET BİLİMİ VE ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER PR.</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                    <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9277-2600</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Demirdal</surname>
                                    <given-names>M. Balkan</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>NİĞDE ÖMER HALİSDEMİR ÜNİVERSİTESİ, İKTİSADİ VE İDARİ BİLİMLER FAKÜLTESİ, KAMU YÖNETİMİ BÖLÜMÜ, HUKUK BİLİMLERİ ANABİLİM DALI</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                                                </contrib-group>
                        
                                        <pub-date pub-type="pub" iso-8601-date="20220430">
                    <day>04</day>
                    <month>30</month>
                    <year>2022</year>
                </pub-date>
                                        <volume>26</volume>
                                        <issue>2</issue>
                                        <fpage>439</fpage>
                                        <lpage>476</lpage>
                        
                        <history>
                                    <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="20210914">
                        <day>09</day>
                        <month>14</month>
                        <year>2021</year>
                    </date>
                                                    <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="20220209">
                        <day>02</day>
                        <month>09</month>
                        <year>2022</year>
                    </date>
                            </history>
                                        <permissions>
                    <copyright-statement>Copyright © 1997, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi</copyright-statement>
                    <copyright-year>1997</copyright-year>
                    <copyright-holder>Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi</copyright-holder>
                </permissions>
            
                                                                                                <abstract><p>Türkiye’de yasama-yürütme ilişkileri literatürde önemli bir çalışma konusu olmuştur. Ancak bu hususu karşılaştırmalı bir şekilde inceleyemeye yönelik sayısal veri sağlayan çalışma bulunmamaktadır. Bu çalışma Krouwel’in Başkanlık-Parlamentarizm Ölçeğini 1876’dan 2017’ye dek Anayasal gelişmeleri kapsayacak şekilde uyarlamıştır. Çalışma kapsamında hükümet sistemlerinin temel özelliklerine değinilmiş ve hükümet sistemlerini sınıflandırmakta kullanılan başkanlık gücü ölçeklerine dair bir literatür taraması yürütülmüştür. Bir sonraki aşamada Krouwel’in Başkanlık-Parlamentarizm Ölçeği literatürde sıklıkla kullanılan diğer ölçeklerde mevcut bulunan kriterler ve Türk Anayasal gelişmelerine uygun olarak uyarlanmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda 2017 Anayasa değişikliği sonrasında devlet başkanının gücünün neredeyse 1876 Anayasasınca belirtilen devlet başkanı güçlerine sahip olduğu bulunmuştur.</p></abstract>
                                                                                                                                    <trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
                            <p>The relationship between legislative and executive has been an important subject of academic studies. However, we have not found any studies to provide numerical data for comparative analysis. This study is an attempt to increase the validity of Krouwel’s ‘Presidentialism-Parliamentarism Scale’ to explain the developments in presidential powers between 1876 and 2017 in Turkey. Within this context, we dealt with the basic characteristics of governmental systems and provided a review of the literature on presidential powers. Next, we adopted the criteria used in different studies on presidential power indices to provide an accurate picture of the development of presidential powers in Turkey between 1876 and 2017. Our analysis revealed that the president of Turkish Republic in Turkey nearly held the powers of the Ottoman Rulers in 1876</p></trans-abstract>
                                                            
            
                                                            <kwd-group>
                                                    <kwd>Devlet başkanı</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  başkanlık gücü endeksi</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  başkanlık-parlamentarizm ölçeği</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Osmanlı İmparatorluğu</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Türkiye Cumhuriyeti</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                        
                                                                            <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
                                                    <kwd>Head of state</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  presidential power index</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  presidentialism-parliamentarism scale</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Ottoman Empire</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Republic of Turkey</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                            </article-meta>
    </front>
    <back>
                            <ref-list>
                                    <ref id="ref1">
                        <label>1</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Aldıkaçtı O, Anayasa Hukukumuzun Gelişmesi ve 1961 Anayasası, Fakülteler Matbaası, 1970.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref2">
                        <label>2</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Anayurt Ö, Anayasa Hukuku Genel Kısım, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2018.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref3">
                        <label>3</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Anayurt Ö / Erdoğan M / Ekinci A, “Devlet Başkanının Halk Tarafından Seçildiği Hükümet Sistemlerinde Seçim Döngüsünün Kuvvetler Ayrılığı ve Siyasal İstikrar Üzerinde Etkisi”, Abuzer Kendigelen / Saadet Yüksel (Ed.), Ord. Prof. Dr. Ali Fuat Başgil’in Anısına Armağan, On İki Levha Yayıncılık, 2019, s. 184-225.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref4">
                        <label>4</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Andrews J T /Bairett R L, “Institutions and the Stabilization of Party Systems in the New Democracies of Central and Eastern Europe”, Electoral Studies, 33, 2014, s. 307-321.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref5">
                        <label>5</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Araslı O, Adaylık Kavramı ve Türkiye’de Milletvekilliği Adaylığı, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Yayınları, 1972.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref6">
                        <label>6</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Armingeon K / Careja R, “Comparative Data Set for 28 Post-Communist Countries, 1989-2007”, Institute of Political Science University of Zurich, 2007,&lt;https://www.cpds-data.org/index.php/data&gt; Erişim Tarihi 20 Temmuz 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref7">
                        <label>7</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Arsel İ, Türk Anayasa Hukukunun Umumî Esasları, Mars Matbaası, 1965.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref8">
                        <label>8</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Aydın M A, “Milletvekili Adaylarının Belirlenme Usulü ve Önseçim”, Yasama Dergisi, 5, 2007, s. 82-108.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref9">
                        <label>9</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Başgil A F, Esas Teşkilat Hukuku, Baha Matbaası, 1960.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref10">
                        <label>10</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Boyunsuz Ş Ö, Dünyada Başkanlık Sistemleri, İmge Kitabevi, 2017.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref11">
                        <label>11</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Clark T D / Wittrock J N, “Presidentialism and the Effect of Electoral Law in Postcommunist Systems: Regime Type Matters”, Comparative Political Studies, 38(2), 2005, s. 171-188.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref12">
                        <label>12</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Doyle D, “Measuring Presidential and Prime Ministerial Power”, Rudy B Andeweg vd. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Executives, Oxford University Press, 2020, s. 381-401.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref13">
                        <label>13</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Doyle D / Elgie R, “Maximizing the Reliability of Cross-National Measures of Presidential Power”, British Journal of Political Science, 46(4), 2016, s. 731-741.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref14">
                        <label>14</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Duverger M, “A New Political System Model: Semi-Presidential Government”, European Journal of Political Research, 8, 1980, s. 165-187.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref15">
                        <label>15</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ekinci A, Yükselen Bir Hükümet Sistemi Tercihi Olarak Tek Başlı Karma Hükümet Sistemleri, Yetkin Yayınevi, 2020.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref16">
                        <label>16</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Esen B / Gümüşçü Ş, “A Small Yes for Presidentialism: The Turkish Constitutional Referendum of April 2017”, South European Society and Politics, 22(3), 2017, s. 303-326.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref17">
                        <label>17</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Fish M S / Kroenig M, The Handbook of National Legislatures: A Global Survey, Cambridge University Press, 2009.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref18">
                        <label>18</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Fortin J, “Measuring Presidential Powers: Some Pitfalls of Aggregate Measurement”, International Political Science Review, 34 (1), 2013, s. 91-112.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref19">
                        <label>19</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Frye T, “A Politics of Institutional Choice: Post-Communist Presidencies”, Comparative Political Studies, 30(5), 1997, s. 523-552.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref20">
                        <label>20</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gözler K, Kanun Hükmünde Kararnamelerin Hukuki Rejimi, Ekin Yayınevi, 2000.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref21">
                        <label>21</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gözler K, Türk Anayasa Hukuku, 2. Baskı, Ekin Yayınevi, 2018.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref22">
                        <label>22</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gül H / Kamalak İ / Gül S S, “Amerikan Başkanlık ve Fransız Yarı-Başkanlık Sistemleri Işığında Türkiye’nin Yeni Cumhurbaşkanlığı Hükümeti Sistemi”, Strategic Public Management Journal, 3 2017, s. 101-120.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref23">
                        <label>23</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hekimoğlu M M, Anayasa Hukukunda Karşılaştırmalı ‘Demokratik Hükümet Sistemleri’ ve Türkiye, Detay Yayıncılık, 2009.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref24">
                        <label>24</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hicken A / Stoll H, “Electoral Rules and the Size of the Prize: How Political Institutions Shape Presidential Party Systems”, Journal of Politics, 70(4), 2008, s. 1109-1127.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref25">
                        <label>25</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Johannsen L/Norgaard O, ‘IPA: The Index of Presidential Authority. Explorations into the Measurement and Impact of a Political Institution’, ECPR Joint Sessions, University of Edinburgh, 28 March - 2 April 2003 &lt;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315756690_IPA_The_Index_of_Presidential_Authority_Explorations_into_the_measurement_of_impact_of_a_political_institution&gt; Erişim Tarihi 16 Temmuz 2021.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref26">
                        <label>26</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kılınç D, “Türkiye’de Bi̇tmeyen Tartişma: Hüküme Si̇stemi̇ Üzeri̇ne Değerlendi̇rmeler”, Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(1), 2016, s. 447-510.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref27">
                        <label>27</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Köker P, Presidential Activism and Veto Power in Central and Eastern Europe, Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref28">
                        <label>28</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Krouwel A, “Measuring Presidentialism and Parliamentarism: An Application to Central and East European Countries”, Acta Politica, 38(4), 2003, s. 333-364.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref29">
                        <label>29</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Kuzu B, Yürütme Organının Düzenleyici İşlem Yapma Yetkisi ve Güçlendirilmesi Eğilimi, Filiz Kitabevi, 1987.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref30">
                        <label>30</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Lijphart A, Çağdaş Demokrasiler, Yetkin Yayınevi, 1996.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref31">
                        <label>31</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Lijphart A, ‘Introduction’, Arend Lijphart (Ed.), Parliamentary versus Presidential Government, Oxford University Press, 1992, s. 1-27.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref32">
                        <label>32</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mainwaring S, “Presidentialism, Multiparty Systems, and Democracy: The Difficult Equation”, Comparative Political Studies, 26(4), 1993, s. 198-228.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref33">
                        <label>33</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Metcalf L K, “Measuring Presidential Power”, Comparative Political Studies, 33(5), 2000, s. 6606-6685.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref34">
                        <label>34</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Negretto G, “Political Parties and Institutional Design: Explaining Constitutional Choice in Latin America”, British Journal of Political Science, 39(1), 2009, s. 117-139.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref35">
                        <label>35</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Önder S, Türk Parlamenter Sisteminde Cumhurbaşkanının Rolü, Turhan Kitabevi, 2007.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref36">
                        <label>36</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özbudun E, 1921 Anayasası, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları, 1992.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref37">
                        <label>37</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özbudun E, Türk Anayasa Hukuku, Yetkin Yayınevi, 2011.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref38">
                        <label>38</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Özbudun E, 1924 Anayasası, Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2012.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref39">
                        <label>39</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Roper S D, “Are All Semipresidential Regimes the Same? A Comparison of Premier-Presidential Regimes”, Comparative Politics, 34(3), 2002, s. 253-272.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref40">
                        <label>40</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sartori G, “Neither Presidentialism nor Parliamentarism”, Juan J Linz / Arturo Valenzuela (Ed.), The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, s. 106-118.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref41">
                        <label>41</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Savage L, “How and When Do Presidents Influence the Duration of Coalition Bargaining in Semi-Presidential Systems?”, European Journal of Political Research, 57(2), 2018, s. 308-332.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref42">
                        <label>42</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sevinç M, “Güçlendirilmiş” Parlamenter Sistem Ne Demek?”, Diken, 16 Ağustos 2020, &lt;http://www.diken.com.tr/guclendirilmis-parlamenter-sistem-ne-demek/&gt; Erişim Tarihi 03 Aralık. 2020.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref43">
                        <label>43</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sezginer M, “Güçlü Yürütme Anlayışı ve Türkiye’deki Görünümü”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(1), 1990, s. 67-93.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref44">
                        <label>44</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Shugart M S, “Of Presidents and Parliaments”, East European Constitution Review, 2(1), 1993, s. 30-32.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref45">
                        <label>45</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Shugart M S /Carey J M, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1992.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref46">
                        <label>46</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Siaroff A, “Comparative Presidencies: The Inadequacy of the Presidential, Semi-Presidential and Parliamentary Distinction”, European Journal of Political Research, 42(3), 2003, s. 287-312.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref47">
                        <label>47</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Singh S P / Carlin R E, “Happy Medium, Happy Citizens: Presidential Power and Democratic Regime Support”, Political Research Quarterly, 68(1), 2015, s. 3-17.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref48">
                        <label>48</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Stepan A / Skach C, “Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism”, World Politics, 46(1), 1993, s. 1-22.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref49">
                        <label>49</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Taghiyev E A, “Measuring Presidential Power in Post-Soviet Countries”, CEU Political Science Journal, 2(3), 2006, s. 11-21.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref50">
                        <label>50</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tanör B, Osmanlı Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2007.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref51">
                        <label>51</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Tanör B, Anayasal Gelişme Tezleri, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2008.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref52">
                        <label>52</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Teziç E, Anayasa Hukuku, Beta Basım, 2005.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref53">
                        <label>53</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Uluşahin N, Saf Hükümet Sistemleri Karşısında İki Başlı Yürütme Yapılanması, Yetkin Yayınevi, 2007.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref54">
                        <label>54</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">von Trapp L, “Benchmarks and Self-Assessment Frameworks for Parliaments”, Mitchell O’Brien / Rick Stapenhurst / Lisa von Trapp (Ed), Benchmarking and Self-Assessment for Parliaments, The World Bank,  2016, s. 7-60.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref55">
                        <label>55</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Whitefield S, “Mind the Representation Gap: Explaining Differences in Public Views of Representation in Postcommunist Democracies”, Comparative Political Studies, 39(6), 2006, s. 733-758.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref56">
                        <label>56</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Zaznaev O, “Measuring Presidential Power in Post-Communist Countries: Rectification of Mistakes”, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(1), 2015, s. 443-449.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                            </ref-list>
                    </back>
    </article>
