Frozen in Time while Icebergs are Melting: Türkiye's Climate Policy

Abstract

In this paper, we adopt Walter Carlsnaes’ tripartite approach in order to scrutinize the consistency of Türkiye’s climate policy with changing climate regimes. We explain the actor-structure duality in climate policy through the interaction of climate regimes and Türkiye's climate policy. The paper reveals the causality behind the policies implemented by Türkiye as a result of its core values and preferences, and explains their continuities. Finally, we address the potential of the European Green Deal to influence Türkiye's preferences, and therefore its climate policy.

Keywords

• Climate Change
• Türkiye
• Tripartite Approach
• Foreign Policy Analysis
• European Green Deal

Thanks

The authors are grateful for the comments, suggestions, and contributions of Thomas King, Muhammed Ali Ağcan, two anonymous reviewers, and the editors at All Azimuth. Of course, these individuals bear no responsibility for any errors that may remain.

References

1. “AB’nin Karbon Vergisi, Türkiye’nin Paris Sözleşmesi’ni Onaylamasında Önemli Rol Oynadı [EU's Carbon Tax
2. Played an Important Role in Turkey's Ratification of Paris Convention].” Euronews, 2021. https://tr.euronews.com/2021/11/08/ab-nin-karbon-vergisi-turkiye-nin-paris-sozlesmesi-ni-onaylamas-ndaonemli-rol-oynad.
3. Adaman, Fikret, and Murat Arsel. “Climate Policy in Turkey: A Paradoxical Situation?.” L’ Europe En Formation 380, no.2 (2016): 26-38.
4. Altaeb, Malak, “Turkey finally ratified the Paris Agreement. Why now?.” Middle East Institute, 2021. https://www.mei.edu/publications/Turkey-finally-ratified-paris-agreement-why-now.
5. Archer, Margaret S. Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
6. Ashizawa, Kuniko P. “Building the Asia-Pacific: Japanese and US Foreign Policy Toward the Creation of Regional Institutions, 1988-1994.” Ph.D. dissertation. Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 2005.
7. Barret, Scott. “Climate Treaties and the Imperative of Enforcement.” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 24, no.2 (2008): 239-258.
8. Bhaskar, Roy. “On the Society / Person Connection.” In The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences, 34-40. London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2014.

9. Bhaskar, Roy. “Some Emergent Properties of Social Systems.” In The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences, 41-47. London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2014.
10. Birpınar, Mehmet Emin. “Turkey does not have a Luxury to be a Laggard in terms of Climate Action.” İklim Haber. Interview by Melis Alphan, 2018. https://www.iklimhaber.org/chief-climate-negotiator-turkey-does-not-havea-luxury-to-be-a-laggard-in-terms-of-climate-action/.
11. Brighi, Elisabetta. Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and International Relations. London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2013.
12. Carlsnaes, Walter. “Actors, Structures, and Foreign Policy Analysis.” In Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases, edited by Steve Smith, Amelia Hadfield, and Tim Dunne, 113-129. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2008. Carlsnaes, Walter. “Foreign Policy.” In Handbook of International Relations, edited by Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse-Kappen, and Beth A. Simmons, 298-325. London, United Kingdom: Sage, 2002. Carlsnaes, Walter. “How Should We Study the Foreign Policies of Small European States?.” Nação e Defesa 118, no.3 (2007): 7-20.
13. Carlsnaes, Walter. “The Agency-Structure Problem in Foreign Policy Analysis.” International Studies Quarterly 36, no.3 (1992): 245-270.
14. Carlsnaes, Walter. “Where is the Analysis of European Foreign Policy Going?.” European Union Politics 5, no.4 (2004): 495-508.
15. Cerit Mazlum, Semra. “Turkey’s Foreign Policy on Global Atmospheric Commons: Climate Change and Ozone Depletion.” In Climate Change and Foreign Policy – Case Studies from East to West, edited by Paul G. Harris, 68-84. London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 2012.
16. “Countries – Find Your Country.” Climate Action Tracker, https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/. European Commission. “The European Green Deal.” Communication from the Commission – COM, 2019. https://commission.europa.eu/publications/communication-european-green-deal_en.
17. Hagan, Joe D. “Does Decision Making Matter?” In Leaders, Groups, and Coalitions: Understanding the People and Processes in Foreign Policymaking, edited by Margaret G. Hermann and Joe D. Hagan, Hoboken, New Jersey: Blackwell Publishers, 2002.
18. Haggard, Stephan, and Beth A. Simmons. “Theories of International Regimes.” International Organization 41, no. 3 (1987): 493-496.
19. Hermann, Margaret G. “Assessing Leadership Style: Trait Analysis.” In The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders: With Profiles of Saddam Hussein and Bill Clinton, edited by Jerrold M. Post. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2005.
20. Hollis, Martin, and Steve Smith. “Beware of Gurus: Structure and Action in International Relations.” Review of International Studies 17, no.4 (1991): 393-410.
21. Hollis, Martin, and Steve Smith. “Structure and Action: Further Comment.” Review of International Studies 18, no.2 (1992): 187-188.
22. Hollis, Martin, and Steve Smith. Explaining and Understanding International Relations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Clarendon Press, 2009.
23. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC. “Climate Change, 2014: Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers.” IPCC, 2014, 2. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/
24. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC. “IPCC 2007: Summary for Policymakers.” In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis – Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by Susan Solomon et al., 1-18. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
25. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC. “Summary for Policymakers.” In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis - Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by Richard Philip Alan et al. Geneva, Switzerland: WMO – IPCC Secretariat, 2021.
26. International Energy Agency - IEA. Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Turkey 2009 Review. Paris, France: OECD Publishing, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264060425-en.
27. “İş İnsanlarından Çağrı: “Paris İklim Anlaşması’nı onaylayın [Call from Business People: Approve Paris Climate Agreement].” Cumhuriyet, 2021. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/is-insanlarindan-cagri-paris-iklimanlasmasini-onaylayin-1843285.
28. Keohane, Robert. O. “International Institutions: Two Approaches.” International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 4 (1988): 379–96.
29. Khokhar, Tariq. “Chart: CO2 Emissions are Unprecedented.” World Bank Blogs, 2017. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/chart-co2-emissions-are-unprecedented.
30. Koengkan, Matheus, and José Alberto Fuinhas. “Is Gender Inequality an Essential Driver in Explaining Environmental Degradation? Some Empirical Answers from the CO2 Emissions in European Union Countries.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 90 (2021): 1-14.
31. Kurki, Milja, and Colin Wight. “International Relations and Social Science.” In International Relations Theories, edited by Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki and Steve Smith, 14-35. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2013.
32. Mathiesen, Karl. “Europe Offered Turkey Cash to Join Paris Climate Accord.” Politico, 2021. https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-turkey-join-paris-agreement-climate-money/.
33. Ministry of Environment and Forestry. First National Communication of Turkey on Climate Change to UNFCCC, edited by Günay Apak, and Bahar Ubay. Ankara, Turkey: Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2007. https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/turnc1.pdf
34. Ministry of Environment and Urbanization. National Climate Change Action Plan 2010–2023. Ankara, Turkey: Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, 2012. https://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/iklim/editordosya/iklim_degisikligi_stratejisi_EN(2).pdf.
35. Moellendorf, Darrel. “Climate Change and Global Justice.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 3, no.4 (2012): 131-143.
36. Napoli, Christopher. “Understanding Kyoto’s Failure.” The SAIS Review of International Affairs 32, no.2 (2012): 183-196.
37. Nordhaus, William. “Climate Clubs: Overcoming Free-riding in International Climate Policy.” American Economic Review 105, no.4 (2015): 1339-1370.
38. Okereke, ChUnited Kingdomwumerije, and Philip Coventry. “Climate Justice and the International Regime: Before, during, and After Paris.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 7, no. 6 (2016): 834-851.
39. Olson, Mancur. The Logic of Collective Action, Vol. 124. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009.
40. “Overview of Turkey,” Climate Action Tracker. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/Turkey/.
41. Rose, Gideon. “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy.” World Politics 51, no.1 (1998): 144-172.
42. Şahin, Ümit, Ahmet Atıl Aşıcı, Sevil Acar, Pınar Gedikkaya-Bal, Ali Osman Karababa, and Levent Kurnaz. Coal Report: Turkey’s Coal Policies related to Climate Change, Economy and Health. Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul Policy Center, 2016.
43. Şahin, Ümit. "Başlangıcından Bugüne Uluslararası İklim Değişikliği Rejimi [The International Climate Change Regime from the Beginning to the Present]." In Uluslararası Çevre Rejimleri [Global Environment Regimes]. Edited by Semra Cerit Mazlum, Yasemin Kaya, and Gökhan Orhan, 67-130. Bursa: Dora, 2017.
44. Şahin, Ümit. “Warming A Frozen Policy: Challenges to Turkey’s Climate Politics After Paris.” Turkish Policy Quarterly 15, no.2 (2016): 117-129.
45. Sariyuce, Isil, and Caitlin Hu. “Turkey Finally Ratifies Paris Climate Agreement but Protests Key Detail.” CNN, 2021, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/06/world/Turkey-ratify-paris-climate-agreement-intl/index.html.
46. Schrodt, Philip A. “Artificial Intelligence and International Relations: An Overview.” In Artificial Intelligence and International Politics, edited by Valerie Hudson, 9-31. New York City, New York: Routledge, 2019.
47. Shakil, Mohammad Hassan, Ziaul Haque Munim, Mashiyat Tasnia, and Shahin Sarowar. “COVID-19 and the Environment: A Critical Review and Research Agenda.” Science of the Total Environment 745, no. 9 (2020): 1-8.
48. State Planning Organization of the Turkish Prime Ministry, Uzun Vadeli Strateji ve Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı VIII 2001-2005 [Long-Term Strategy and Five-Year Development Plan VIII 2001-2005]. Ankara, Turkey: State Planning Organization, 2000.
49. Tagliapietra, Simone, and Guntram B. Wolff. “Conditions are Ideal for a New Climate Club.” Energy Policy 158 (2021): 1-5.
50. Talu, Nuran. Türkiye’de İklim Değişikliği Siyaseti [Politics of Climate Change in Turkey]. Ankara, Phonenix, 2015.
51. Turhan, Ethemcan, Semra Cerit Mazlum, Ümit Şahin, Alevgül H. Şorman, and A. Cem Gündoğan. “Beyond Special Circumstances: Climate Policy in Turkey 1995–2015.” WIREs: Interdisciplinary Reviews on Climate Change 7, no.3 (2016): 448-460.
52. Türk Sanayicileri ve İş İnsanları Derneği – TÜSİAD. Ekonomi Politikaları Perspektifinden İklim Değişikliği ile Mücadele [Struggle with Climate Change from the Perspective of Economy Policies. Ankara, Turkey: TÜSİAD, 2016.
53. “Türkiye iklim değişikliği zirvesinde statü değişikliği talebini geri çekt [Türkiye withdrew its status change request during the Climate Change Summit]i.” BloombergHT, 2021. https://www.bloomberght.com/turkiye-iklimzirvesinde-statu-degisikligi-talebini-geri-cekti-2291117.
54. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC. the Republic of Turkey Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (Ankara, Turkey: UNFCC, 2015).
55. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – “Amendment to the list in Annex II to the Convention, Decision 26/ Chapter 7.” 2001, https://unfccc.int/documents/2521.
56. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – “Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.” Paper presented at Kyoto Climate Change Conference of the United Nations. Kyoto, Japan, December 1997. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/250111.
57. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – “Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.” Paper presented at Paris Climate Change Conference of United Nations. Paris, France, December, 2015. https://unfccc.int/processand-meetings/the-paris-agreement.
58. “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol– 1. UNFCCC and Türkiye’s Position.” Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2022. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change-_unfccc_-and-the-kyotoprotocol.en.mfa
59. Wendt, Alexander. “Bridging the Theory/Meta-theory Gap in International Relations.” Review of International Studies 17, no.4 (1991): 383-92.
60. Wendt, Alexander. “Levels of Analysis vs. Agents and Structures: Part III,’ Review of International Studies 18, no.2, (1992): 181-185.
61. Wolf, Sarah, Jonas Teitge, Jahel Mielke, Franziska Schütze, and Carlo Jaeger. “The European Green Deal — More Than Climate Neutrality” Intereconomics 56, no.2 (2021): 99- 107.
62. Yeldan, Erinç, and Ebru Voyvoda. Türkiye için Düşük Karbonlu Kalkınma Yolları ve Öncelikleri [Low Carbon Development Pathways and Priorities for Turkey]. Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul Policy Center, 2015.