Investigating ambient air quality of a shooting range during official national competitions

Year 2022, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 11 - 23, 31.03.2022

S. Yeşer Aslanoğlu , Fatma Öztürk , Gülen Güllü

https://doi.org/10.35208/ert.998705

Abstract

Shooting is among nine sports branches that formed the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. A professional shooting athlete shoots millions of bullets throughout their sports life to commune with their gun dedicatedly. The number of simultaneous shots per unit time depends on the capacity of the range. It can enormously increase when a national match is a case. Shooting can cause gunshot residue exposure, including lead, other elements, and their by-products accumulate in ambient air and reveal significant health risks. This study aims to find the levels of PM₁₀ and its chemical composition during official three-day 50 m 22-cal competitions in May 2016, Mersin, Turkey. To this end, PM₁₀ samples were collected on quartz-fiber filters and analyzed for elements by ICP-MS and carbonaceous material by Thermal-Optical EC/OC analyzer. The total PM₁₀ mass concentration average is 28.7±7.3 µg/m³ within the indoor threshold values of different countries. The ambient mass concentrations of PM₁₀, OC, EC, TC, Cd, and Pb were higher during once pistol matches instead of rifle matches. Although Pb values did not exceed the indoor limits for shooting ranges, it has the highest concentration among the analyzed elements. Additionally, Cr poses cancer risk potential. Except for Zn, Sr, and Cu, all the measured parameters have higher calculated emission factor (EF) values during pistol shots. To our best knowledge, this study reports the airborne mass concentrations of EC, OC, and TC from indoor shooting ranges and investigates indoor air quality for shooting sport for the first time.

Keywords

Shooting range,, 22-cal,, PM10, EC,, OC,, elements

Thanks

We thank to Turkish Shooting and Hunting Federation for letting us perform this sampling campaign during this three-day of competition. Moreover, we acknowledge Ministry of Environment and Urbanization for providing the PM10 sampler used during this study.

References

• Abadin, H. (2007). Toxicological profile for lead. Atlanta: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), (2007). Toxicological profile for Lead. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
• Abudhaise BA, Alzoubi MA, Rabi AZ, Alwash RM., 1996. Lead exposure in indoor firing ranges: environmental impact and health risk to the range users. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 9, 323 –329.
• Abudhaise, B.A., Alzoubi, M.A., Rabi, A.Z., Alwash, R.M., 1996. Lead exposure in indoor firing ranges: environmental impact and health risk to the range users. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 9(4), 323-329.
• Almeida-Silva M, Wolterbeek HT, Almeida SM. Elderly exposure to indoor air pollutants. Atmos Environ 2014;85:54e63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.atmosenv.2013.11.061.
• Almeida-Silva, M., Wolterbeek, H., Almeida, S.M., 2014. Elderly exposure to indoor air pollutants. Atmos. Environ. 85, 54e63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.atmosenv.2013.11.061.
• Alves, C.A., Calvo, A.I., Castro, A., Fraile, R., Evtyugina, M., Bate-Epey, E.F., 2013. Inddor Air Quality in Two University Sports Facilities. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 13: 1723–1730.
• Andrade, A., Dominski, F.H., 2018. Indoor air quality of environments used for physical exercise and sports practice: Systematic review. Journal of Environmental Management 206, 577-586
• Argunhan, Z., Avci, A.S., 2018. Statistical Evaluation of Indoor Air Quality Parameters in Classrooms of a University. Advances in Meteorology, Article ID 4391579, 10 pages
• Ase, P.W., Eisenberg, S. Gordon, K. Taylor, & A. Snelson, 1985. Propellant combustion product analyses on an M16 Rifle and a 105 mm caliber gun. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. A A20, 337–368.
• Barceloux, DG. Chromium. Clinical Toxicology, 1999, 37(2), 173-194.
• Bisht, D.S., Tiwari, S., Srivastava, A.K., Srivastava, M.K., 2013. Assessment of air quality during 19th Common Wealth Games at Delhi, India. Natural Hazards 66, 141-154
• Briggs, NL, Long, BC, 2016. Critical review of black carbon and elemental carbon source apportionment in Europe and the United States. Atmospheric Environment 144, 409-427.
• Caddy B, Meng HH, 1997. Gunshot residue analysis—a review. Journal of Forensic Science (42), 553–570 Canha N, Almeida SM, Freitas MC, Wolterbeek HT, Cardoso J, Pio C. Impact of wood burning on windoor PM2.5 in a primary school in rural Portugal. Atmos Environ 2014;94:663e70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.080.
• Carlisle, A.J., Sharp, N.C.C., 2001. Exercise and outdoor ambient air pollution. Br. J. Sex. Med. 4, 214-222.
• Carrer, P., Wolkoff, P., 2018. Assessment of Indoor Air Quality Problems in Office-Like Environments: Role of Occupational Health Services. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, 741
• Castro, A., Calvo, A.I., Alves, C., Alonso-Blanco, E., Coz, E., Marques, L., Nunes, T., Fernandez-Guisuraga, J.M., Fraile, R., 2015. Indoor aerosol size distributions in a gymnasium. Science of The Total Environment 524-525, 178-186.
• Chau, T.T., Chen, W.Y., Hsiao, T.M., Liu, H.W., 1995. Chronic Lead Intoxication at an Indoor Firing Range in Taiwan. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 33(4), 371-372.
• Cianfanelli, C., Valeriani, F., Santucci, S., Giampaoli, S., Gianfranceschi, G., Nicastro, A., Borioni, F., Robaud, G., Mucci, N., Spica, V.R., 2016. Environmental Quality in Sports Facilities: Perception and Indoor Air Quality 3(2), 57-77.
• Crump C, Crump K, Hack E, Luippold, R., Mundt, K., Liebig, E., Panko, J., Paustenbach, D., Proctor, D., 2003. Dose-response and risk assessment of airborne hexavalent chromium and lung cancer mortality. Risk Analysis, 23(6), 1147-1163.
• Defence Research and Development Canada: Characterization of Atmospheric Emissions Produced by Live Gun Firing: Test on the M777 155 mm Howitzer, by B. Qu´emerais, E. Diaz, I. Poulin, and A. Marois. (TR 2007-102). Defence Research and Development Canada, October 2007
• El-Sharkawy, M.F., Noweir, M.E.H., 2014. Indoor air quality levels in a university hospital in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. J. Fam. Community Med. 21 (1), 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2230-8229.128778.
• Fischbein, A., 1979. Exposure to lead in firing ranges. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 1141-1144
• Grabinski, CM, Methner, MM, Jackson, HM., Moore, AL., Flory, LE., Tilly, T., Hussain, SM., Ott, DK., 2017. Characterization of exposure to byproducts from firing lead-free frangible ammunition in an enclosed, ventilated firing range. Journal of Occupational Environmental Hygiene 14(6), 461-472
• Gulson, B. L., 2002. Changes in blood lead of a recreational shooter. The Science of the Total Environment, 143-150.
• Haw CK, Jayaprakasha PT, Hooib YC, Abdullaha AF., 2010. Health concern on lead encountered during firing practices: a review. Health and the Environment Journal, 1(2), 24–29.
• Ho, KF, Cao, JJ, Harrison, RM, Lee, SC, Bau, KK, 2004. Indoor/outdoor relationships of organic carbon (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) in PM2.5 in roadside environment in Hong Kong. Atmospheric Environment 38, 6327-6335
• International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006. Volume 87, Inorganic and Organic Lead Compounds: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation. Lyon: World Health Organization.
• Jenkins, P.L., Phillips, T.J., Mulberg, E.J., and Hui, S.P. 1992. Activity patterns of Californians: Use of and proximity to indoor pollution sources. Atmospheric Environment 26A, 2141–2148.
• Järup, L., 2003. Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical Bulletin 68(1), 167-182.
• Kic, P., 2016. Dust pollution in the sport facilities. Agron. Res. 14 (1), 75-81.
• Kim, K.H., Kabir, E., Kabir, S., 2015. A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter. Environmental International 74, 136-143.
• Laidlaw, M.A.S., Filippelli, G., Mielke, H., Gulson, B., Balll, A.S., 2017. Lead exposure at firing ranges-a review. Environmental Health 16, 34. Langer, S., Bekö, G., Bloom, E., Widheden, A., Ekberg, L., 2015. Indoor air quality in passive and conventional new houses in Sweden. Building and Environment 93, 92-100
• Liu, K., Shang, Q., Wan, C., 2018. Sources and Health Risks of Heavy Metals in PM2.5 in a Campus in a Typical Suburb Area of Taiyuan, North China. Atmosphere 9(2), 46
• Lofstedt H, Selden A, Storeus L, Bodin L., 1999. Blood lead in Swedish police officers. Am J Ind Med 35, 519 –522.
• M, Hajian, Sh, Mohaghegh, Sh., 2015. Indoor Air Pollution in Exercise Centers. International Journal of Medical Toxicology and Forensic Medicine 5(1), 22-31.
• Mandin, C., Trantallidi, M., Cattaneo, A., Canha, N., Mihucz, V., Szigeti, T., Mabilia, R., Perreca, E., Spinazze, A., Fossati, S., Kluizenaar, Y., Cornelisse, E., Sakellaris, J., Saraga, D., Hanninen, O., Fernandes, D.O., Ventura, G., Wolkoff, P., Carrer, P., Bartzis, J., 2017. Assessment of indoor air quality in office buildings across Europe – The OFFICAIR study. Science of the Total Environment 579, 169–178
• Na, K, Cocker, DR III, 2005. Organic and elemental carbon concentrations in fine particulate matter in residences, schoolrooms, and outdoor air in Mira Loma, California. Atmospheric Environment 39, 3325-3333
• National Toxicology Program. NTP monograph: health effects of Low-level lead. 2012. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/hat/noms/lead/index.html Accessed 1 September 2016
• Orru, H., Pindus, M., Harro, H.R., Maasikmets, M., Herodes, K., 2018. Metallic Fumes at Indoor Shooting Ranges: Lead, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc in Different Fractions of Airborne Particulate Matter. Propellants, Explosives and Pyrotechnics 43, 228-233
• Osman LM, Douglas JG, Garden C, Reglitz K, Lyon J, Gordon S, et al. Indoor air quality in homes of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Resp Crit Care 2007;176:465e72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200605- 589OC
• Öztürk F, Keles M, Wintertime Chemical Compositions of Coarse and Fine Fractions of Particulate Matter in Bolu, Turkey, Environmental Science and Pollution Research (ESPR) 23, 14157-14172, 2016
• Pegas PN, Evtyugina MG, Alves CA, Nunes T, Cerqueira M, Franchi M, et al. Outdoor/indoor air quality in primary schools in Lisbon: a preliminary study. Quim Nova 2010;33:1145e9
• Perez-Padilla, R., Schilmann A., Riojas Rodriguez, H., 2010. Respiratory health effects of indoor air pollution. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 14(9), 1079-1086. Ramos, C.A., Reis, J.F., Almeida, T., Alves, F., Wolterbeek, H.T., Almeida, S.M., 2015. Estimating the inhaled dose of pollutants during indoor physical activity. Science of the Total Environment 527–528, 111–118.
• Qiao, H., Liu, W., Gu, H., Wang, D., Wang, Y., 2015. The transport and deposition of nanoparticles in respiratory system by inhalation. Journal of Nanoparticles Article ID 394507, 8 pages
• Ramos, C.A., Wolterbeek, H.T., Almeida, S.M., 2014. Exposure to indoor air pollutants during physical activity in fitness centers. Building and Environment 82, 349-360
• Roy, A.A., Baxla, S.P., Gupta, T., Bandyopadhyaya, R., Tripathi, S.N., Particles emitted from indoor combustion sources: size distribution measurements and chemical analysis. Inhalation Toxicology, 2009, 1-12.
• Seleventi, MK, Saraga, DE, Helmis, CG, Bairachtari, K., Vasilakos, C., Maggos, T., 2012. PM2.5 Indoor/Outdoor Relationship and Chemical composition in ions and OC/EC in an apartment in the Centers of Athens. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 21(11), 3177-3183
• Shao, L., Shi, Z., Jones, T.P., Li, J., Whittaker, A.G., BeruBe, K.A., 2006. Bioreactivity of particulate matter in Beijing air: Results from plasmid DNA assay. Science of the Total Environment 367, 261-272.
• Slezakova, K., Peixoto, C., Oliveira, M., Delerue-Matos, C., do Carmo Pereira, M., Morais, S., 2018. Indoor particulate pollution in fitness centres with emphasis on ultrafine particles. Environmental Pollution 233, 180-193.
• Svensson, B.G., Schütz, A., Nilsson, A., Skerfving, S., 1992. Lead exposure in indoor firing ranges. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 64, 219-221.
• Torkmahalleh, M.A., Yu, C.H., Lin, L., Fan, Z.T., Swift, JL., Bonanno, L., Rasmussen, D.H., Holse, T.M., Hopke, P.K., 2013. Improved Atmospheric Sampling of Hexavalent Chromium. Journal of Air Waste Management Association 63(11), 1313-1323.
• Torkmahalleh, M.A., Kabay, K., Bazhanova, M., Mohiuddin, O., Obaidullah, M., Gorjinezhad, S., 2018. Investigating the impact of different sport trainings on particulate matter resuspension in a sport center using well-characterized reference instruments and a low-cost monitor. Science of The Total Environment 612, 957-965
• Torres, M.A., 2014. Characterizing Lead Exposure to at a US Coast Guard Indoor Firing Range. Master of Science Thesis, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Method 200.8, Revision 5.4: Determination of Trace Elements in Waters and Wastes by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, EMMC version, 1994.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter (Final Report), 2004. In Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ).Available at: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html. Cited: April 2, 2014a.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. Indoor Air Pollution.An Introduction for Health Professionals. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.htm. Cited: April 4, 2014b.
• Verbrugge, L. A., 2009. Human exposure to lead from ammunition in the circumpolar north. Alaska Department of Health and Social Services, Division of Public Health, Section of Epidemiology, 126-136.
• Viegas C, Almeida-Silva M, Gomes AQ, Wolterbeek HT, Almeida SM. Fungal contamination assessment in Portuguese elderly care centers. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2014;77(1e3):14e23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 15287394.2014.861336.
• WHO. World health organization, 2016. WHO releases country estimates on air pollution exposure and health impact.
• Wingfors, H., Svensson, K., Hagglund, L., Hedenstierna, S., Magnusson, R., 2014. Emission Factors for Gases and Particle-Bound Substances by Firing Lead-Free Small-Caliber Ammunition. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 11, 282-291
• Yang, Y., Liu, L., Xu, C., Li, N., Liu, Z., Wang, Q., Xu, D., 2018. Source Apportionment and Influencing Factor Analysis of Residential Indoor PM2.5 in Beijing. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, 686.
• Zitnik, M., Bucar, K., Hiti, B., Barba, Z., Rupnik, Z., Zaloznik, A., Zitnik, E., Rodrìguez, L., Mihevc, I., Zibert, J., 2016. Exercise-induced effects on a gym atmosphere. Indoor Air 26 (3), 468-477.