Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Programs in Cesarean Delivery: Review of the Literature

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 4 Sayı: 2, 87 - 96, 30.06.2022

Tuğba Kınay , Müjde Can İbanoğlu , Yaprak Ustun

https://doi.org/10.46969/EZH.1076419

Öz

Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) programs have been improved surgical outcomes in many surgical sub-specialties, since the early 2000s. This multidisciplinary standardized care program aimed to optimize preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative care of patients undergoing surgery. Recent reports showed that the ERAS protocols have been successfully implemented in cesarean deliveries. The key elements of ERAS program in cesarean delivery are antenatal education/counseling, preoperative medical optimization, preanesthetic medication, limited fasting time, carbohydrate supplementation, intraoperative anesthetic management, surgical site infection prophylaxis, maintenance of normothermia and euvolemia, appropriate surgical technique, newborn care, postoperative analgesia, prevention of nausea and vomiting, early feeding, early mobilization, thromboembolism prophylaxis, glucose management, urinary management, and discharge counseling. The implementation of these elements resulted with improved maternal/neonatal outcomes and reduced length of hospital stay. However, the current literature on this topic is not enough to develop a standardized globally implemented ERAS protocol for cesarean delivery. Further studies are required to enhance the care program and recommendations.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Cesarean delivery, enhanced recovery after surgery, intraoperative, preoperative, postoperative

Sezaryen Doğumda Gelişmiş Cerrahi Sonrası İyileşme Programları: Literatür Taraması

Öz

Gelişmiş Cerrahi Sonrası İyileşme (ERAS) programları, 2000’li yılların başından beri birçok cerrahi uzmanlık dalında operasyon sonuçlarını iyileştirmiştir. Bu multidisipliner standart bakım programı, cerrahi hastalarının preoperatif, intraoperatif, postoperatif bakımını optimize etmeyi amaçlamıştır. Yeni yayınlar ERAS protokollerinin sezaryen doğumlarda başarıyla uygulandığını göstermiştir. Sezaryen doğumda ERAS programının temel öğeleri; antenatal eğitim/danışmanlık, cerrahi öncesi tıbbi optimizasyon, anestezi öncesi medikasyon, sınırlı açlık süresi, karbonhidrat suplementasyonu, intraoperatif anestezi yönetimi, cerrahi alan enfeksiyon profilaksisi, normotermi ve övoleminin sürdürülmesi, uygun cerrahi teknik, yenidoğan bakımı, postoperatif analjezi, bulantı ve kusmanın önlenmesi, erken beslenme, erken mobilizasyon, tromboembolizm profilaksisi, glukoz yönetimi, idrar yönetimi ve taburculuk danışmanlığıdır. Bu öğelerin uygulanması, maternal /neonatal sonuçların iyileşmesi ve hastanede kalış süresinin azalması ile sonuçlanmıştır. Bununla birlikte, bu konudaki mevcut literatür sezaryen doğum için standartlaştırılmış, küresel olarak uygulanan bir ERAS protokolü geliştirmek için yeterli değildir. Bakım programını ve önerileri geliştirmek için daha fazla çalışmaya ihtiyaç vardır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Sezaryen doğum, gelişmiş cerrahi sonrası iyileşme, intraoperative, preoperatif, postoperatif

Kaynakça

• Steenhagen E. Enhanced recovery after surgery: It’s time to change practice! Nutrition in Clinical Practice 2016;31:18–29.
• Elias KM. Understanding enhanced recovery after surgery guidelines: An introductory approach. Journal of Laparoendoscopic& Advanced Surgical Techniques 2017;27:871–875.
• Bisch SP, Wells T, Gramlich L, et al. Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS)in gynecologic oncology: System-wide implementation and audit leads to improved value and patient outcomes. Gynecologic Oncology 2018;15: 117–123
• Peahl AF, Smith R, Johnson TRB, Morgan DM, Pearlman MD. Better late than never: why obstetricians must implement enhanced recovery after cesarean. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2019; 221:117e1–117e7. White RS, Matthews KC, Tangel V, Abramovitz S. Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) programs for cesarean delivery can potentially reduce healthcare and racial disparities. Journal of the National Medical Association 2019; 111:464–465
• Shinnick JK, Ruhotina M, Has P, et al. Enhanced Recovery after Surgery for Cesarean Delivery Decreases Length of Hospital Stay and Opioid Consumption: A Quality Improvement Initiative. American Journal of Perinatology. 2020. doi: 10.1055/s-0040-1709456. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 32485757.
• Adshead D, Wrench I, Woolnough M. Enhanced recovery for elective Caesarean section. BJA Education. 2020;20:354-357.
• Mullman L, Hilden P, Goral J, et al. Improved Outcomes With an Enhanced Recovery Approach to Cesarean Delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2020;136:685-691.
• Teigen NC, Sahasrabudhe N, Doulaveris G, et al. Enhanced recovery after surgery at cesarean delivery to reduce postoperative length of stay: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2020;222:372.e1-372.e10.
• Kleiman AM, Chisholm CA, Dixon AJ, et al. Evaluation of the impact of enhanced recovery after surgery protocol implementation on maternal outcomes following elective cesarean delivery. International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia. 2020;43:39-46.
• Wilson RD, Caughey AB, Wood SL, et al. Guidelines for Antenatal and Preoperative care in Cesarean Delivery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Society Recommendations (Part 1). American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2018;219:523.e1-523.e15.
• Caughey AB, Wood SL, Macones GA, et al. Guidelines for intraoperative care in cesarean delivery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Society Recommendations (Part 2). American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2018;219:533-544.
• Macones GA, Caughey AB, Wood SL, et al. Guidelines for postoperative care in cesarean delivery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) Society recommendations (part 3). American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2019;221:247.e1-247.e9.
• SOAP. Society of Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology (SOAP) Enhanced Recovery After Cesarean (ERAC) Consensus Statement 2020. 2020. https://soap.org/SOAP-Enhanced-Recovery-After-Cesarean-Consensus-Statement.pdf
• Blondon M, Casini A, Hoppe KK, Boehlen F, Righini M, Smith NL. Risks of venous thromboembolism after cesarean sections: a metaanalysis. Chest 2016;150:572–596.
• Jackson N, Paterson-Brown S. Physical sequelae of caesarean section. Best Practice &Researcl Clinical Obstetrics &Gynaecology 2001;15:49–61.
• Smaill FM, Grivell RM. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;10:CD007482.
• Hardy-Fairbanks AJ, Lauria MR, Mackenzie T, McCarthy M Jr. Intensity and unpleasantness of pain following vaginal and cesarean delivery: a prospective evaluation. Birth (Berkeley, Calif.) 2013;40:125–133.
• Colmorn LB, Krebs L, Klungsoyr K, et al. Mode of first delivery and severe maternal complications in the subsequent pregnancy. ActaObstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2017;96:1053–1062. Keag OE, Norman JE, Stock SJ. Long-term risks and benefits associated with cesarean delivery for mother, baby, and subsequent pregnancies: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine 2018;15:e1002494.
• Kamath BD, Todd JK, Glazner JE, Lezotte D, Lynch AM. Neonatal outcomes after elective cesarean delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecololgy2009;113:1231–1238.
• Signore C, Klebanoff M. Neonatal morbidity and mortality after elective cesarean delivery. Clinics in Perinatology 2008;35:361–371.
• Bager P, Simonsen J, Nielsen NM, Frisch M. Cesarean section and offspring’s risk of inflammatory bowel disease: a national cohort study. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases 2012;18:857–862.
• Cardwell CR, Stene LC, Joner G, et al. Caesarean section is associated with an increased risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Diabetologia 2008;51:726–735.
• Huh SY, Rifas-Shiman SL, Zera CA, et al. Delivery by caesarean section and risk of obesity in preschool age children: a prospective cohort study. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97: 610–616.
• Thavagnanam S, Fleming J, Bromley A, Shields MD, Cardwell CR. A meta-analysis of the association between caesarean section and childhood asthma. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2008;38: 629–633.
• Marchi J, Berg M, Dencker A, Olander EK, Begley C. Risks associated with obesity in pregnancy, for the mother and baby: a systematic review of reviews. Obesity Reviews 2015;16:621–638.
• Grupper M, Nicolau DP. Obesity and skin and soft tissue infections: how to optimize antimicrobial usage for prevention and treatment. Current Opinionin Infectious Diseases2017;30:180–191.
• Ayres-de-Campos D. Obesity and the challenges of caesarean delivery: prevention and management of would complications. Best Practice &Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2015;29:406–414.
• Lamon AM, Habib AS. Managing anesthesia for cesarean section on obese patients: current perspectives. Local and Regional Anesthesia 2016;9: 45–57.
• Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL, Eds. Weight gain during pregnancy: reexamining the guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009.
• Bramham K, Parnell B, Nelson-Piercy C, Seed PT, Poston L, Chappell LC. Chronic hypertension and pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2014;348: g2301.
• Bartsch E, Medcalf KE, Park AL, Ray JG; High Risk of Pre-eclampsia Identification Group. Clinical risk factors for pre-eclampsia determined in early pregnancy: systematic review and meta-analysis of large cohort studies. BMJ. 2016;353:i1753.
• Sibai BM, Lindheimer M, Hauth J, et al. Risk factors for preeclampsia, abruptio placentae, and adverse neonatal outcomes among women with chronic hypertension: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. The New England Journal of Medicine 1998;339:667–671.
• Schlembach D, Homuth V, Dechend R. Treating hypertension in pregnancy. Current Hypertension Reports 2015;17:63.
• American College of Obstetricians, Gynecologists, Task Force on Hypertension in pregnancy. Hypertension in pregnancy: report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2013;122:1122–1131.
• Sava RI, March KL, Pepine CJ. Hypertension in pregnancy: taking cues from pathophysiology for clinical practice. Clinical Cardiolology 2018;41:220–227.
• Balsells M, Garcia-Patterson A, Gich I, Corcoy R. Maternal and fetal outcome in women with type 2 versus type 1 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and metaanalysis. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2009;94:4284–4291.
• Langer O, Yogev Y, Most O, Yexakis EMJ. Gestational diabetes: the consequences of not treating. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecolology 2005;192: 989–997.
• American Diabetes Association. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: standards of medical care in diabetese2018. Diabetes Care 2018;41:S137–43.
• Farrar D, Simmonds M, Bryant M, et al. Treatments for gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2017;7:e015557.
• Levy A, Fraser D, Katz M, Mazor M, Sheiner E. Maternal anemia during pregnancy is an independent risk factor for low birthweight and preterm delivery. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecololgy, and Reproductive Biology 2005;122:182–186.
• Musallam KM, Tamim HM, Richards T, et al. Preoperative anaemia and postoperative outcomes in non-cardiac surgery: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2011;378:1396–1407.
• Young MF. Maternal anaemia and risk of mortality: a call for action. The Lancet Global Health 2018;6:e479–80.
• US Department of Health and Human Services. The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke: a report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordinating Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 2006. Holbrook BD. Review the effects of nicotine on human fetal development. Birth Defects Research 2016;108:181–192.
• Confidential enquiries into maternal deaths. Why mothers die 2000-2002: the sixth report of the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. London: RCOG Press; 2004.
• Walker KJ, Smith AF. Premedication for anxiety in adult day surgery. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009:CD002192.
• Whitelaw AGL, Cummings AJ, Mc Fadyen IR. Effect of maternal lorazepam on the neonate. British Medical Journal 1981;282:1106–1108.
• Arnold A, Aitchison LP, Abbott J. Preoperative mechanical bowel preparation for abdominal, laparoscopic, and vaginal surgery: a systematic review. Journal of Minimally Invasive Gynecololgy 2015;22:737–752.
• Lurie S, Baider C, Glickman H, Golan A, Sadan O. Are enemas given before cesarean section useful? A prospective randomized controlled study. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecololgy, and Reproductive Biology 2012;163:27–29.
• Smith I, Kranke P, Murat I, et al. Perioperative fasting in adults and children: guidelines from the European Society of Anaesthesiology. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2011;28:556–569.
• Smith MD, McCall J, Plank L, Herbison PG, Soop M, Nygren J. Preoperative carbohydrate treatment for enhancing recovery after elective surgery. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;8:CD009161.
• Malin GL, Bugg GJ, Thornton J, et al. Does oral carbohydrate supplementation improve labour outcome? A systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. BJOG 2016;123:510–7.
• Tita AT, Szychowski JM, Boggess K, et al. C/SOAP Trial Consortium. Adjunctive azithromycin prophylaxis for cesarean delivery. The New England Journal of Medicine 2016;375:1231–1241.
• Mackeen AD, Packard RE, Ota E, Berghella V, Baxter JK. Timing of intravenous prophylactic antibiotics for preventing postpartum infectious morbidity in women undergoing cesarean delivery. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;5:CD009516.
• Tuuli MG, Liu J, Stout MJ, et al. A randomized trial comparing skin antiseptic agents at cesarean delivery. The New England Journal of Medicine 2016;374:647–655.
• Darouiche RO, Wall MJ Jr, Itani KM, et al. Chlorhexidine-alcohol versus povidone-iodine for surgical-site antisepsis. The New England Journal of Medicine2010;362:18–26.
• Haas DM, Morgan S, Contreras K. Vaginal preparation with antiseptic solution before cesarean section for preventing postoperative infections. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;12: CD007892.
• McIsaac DI, Cole ET, McCartney CJ. Impact of including regional anaesthesia in enhanced recovery protocols: a scoping review. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2015;115:ii46–56.
• Schewe JC, Komusin A, Zinserling J, Nadstawek J, Hoeft A, Hering R. Effects of spinal anaesthesia versus epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section on postoperative analgesic consumption and postoperative pain. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2009;26:52–59.
• Lew E, Yeo SW, Thomas E. Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia using epidural volume extension leads to faster motor recovery after elective caesarean delivery: a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2004;98:810–814.
• Dahl JB, Jeppesen IS, Jørgensen H, Wetterslev J, Møiniche S. Intraoperative and postoperative analgesic efficacy and adverse effects of intrathecal opioids in patients undergoing cesarean section with spinal anesthesia: a qualitative and quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Anesthesiology 1999;91:1919–1927.
• Abdallah FW, Halpern SH, Margarido CB. Transversus abdominis plane block for postoperative analgesia after caesarean delivery performed under spinal anaesthesia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2012;109:679–687.
• Bamigboye AA, Hofmeyr GJ. Local anaesthetic wound infiltration and abdominal nerves block during caesarean section for postoperative pain relief. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009;3:CD006954.
• Patel K, Zakowski M. Enhanced Recovery After Cesarean: Current and Emerging Trends. Current Anesthesiology Reports. 2021:1-9
• Sessler DI. Complications and treatment of mild hypothermia. Anesthesiology 2001;95: 531–43.
• Yokoyama K, Suzuki M, Shimada Y, Matsushima T, Bito H, Sakamoto A. Effect of administration of pre-warmed intravenous fluid on the frequency of hypothermia following spinal anesthesia for Cesarean delivery. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2009;21:242–248.
• Duryea EL, Nelson DB, Wyckoff MH, et al. The impact of ambient operating room temperature on neonatal and maternal hypothermia and associated morbidities: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2016;214:505.e1–7.
• Saad AF, Rahman M, Costantine MM, Saade GR. Blunt versus sharp uterine incision expansion during low transverse cesarean delivery: a metaanalysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2014;211:684.e1–11.
• Anorlu RI, Maholwana B, Hofmeyr GJ. Methods of delivering the placenta at caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008; CD004737.
• Dodd JM, Anderson ER, Gates S, Grivell RM. Surgical techniques for uterine incision and uterine closure at the time of caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews2014;7: CD004732.
• Bamigboye AA, Hofmeyr GJ. Closure versus non-closure of the peritoneum at caesarean section: short- and long-term outcomes. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews2014;8: CD000163.
• Lyell DJ, Caughey AB, Hu E, Blumenfeld Y, El-Sayed YY, Daniels K. Rectus muscle and visceral peritoneum closure at cesarean delivery and intraabdominal adhesions. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2012;206:515.
• Lyell DJ, Naqvi M, Wong A, Urban R, Carvalho B. Rectus Muscle Reapproximation at Cesarean Delivery and Postoperative Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Surgery Journal (New York). 2017;3:e128-e133.
• Israelsson LA, Millbourn D. Prevention of incisional hernias. The Surgical Clinics of North America 2013;93:1027.
• Słabuszewska-Jóźwiak A, Szymański JK, Jóźwiak Ł, Sarecka-Hujar B. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Wound Complications after a Caesarean Section in Obese Women. Journal of Clinical Medicine 2021;10:675.
• Mackeen AD, Schuster M, Berghella V. Suture versus staples for skin closure after cesarean: a metaanalysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology2015;212:621.e1–10.
• Yu L, Kronen RJ, Simon LE, Stoll CRT, Colditz GA, Tuuli MG. Prophylactic negative pressure wound therapy after cesarean is associated with reduced risk of surgical site infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2018;218:200–10.e1.
• Carvalho JC, Mathias RS. Intravenous hydration in obstetrics. International Anesthesiology Clinics 1994;32:103–115.
• Chantry CJ, Nommsen-Rivers LA. Excess weight loss in first-born breastfed newborns relates to maternal intrapartum fluid balance. Pediatrics 2011;127:171–179.
• Corke BC, Datta S, Ostheimer GW, Weiss JB, Alper MH. Spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. The influence of hypotension on neonatal outcome. Anaesthesia 1982;37:658-62.
• Kinsella SM, Carvalho B, Dyer RA, et al. International consensus statement on the management of hypotension with vasopressors during caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2018;73:71–92.
• Kc A, Rana N, Målqvist M, Jarawka Ranneberg L, Subedi K, Andersson O. Effects of delayed umbilical cord clamping vs early clamping on anemia in infants at 8 and 12 months: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics 2017;171:264–270.
• Fogarty M, Osborn DA, Askie L, et al. Delayed vs early umbilical cord clamping for preterm infants: a systematic review and metaanalysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology2018;218:1–18.
• McDonald SJ, Middleton P, Dowswell T, Morris PS. Effect of timing of umbilical cord clamping of term infants on maternal and neonatal outcomes. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013;7:CD004074.
• Perlman JM, Wyllie J, Kattwinkel J, et al. Part 7: neonatal resuscitation: 2015 International consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation 2015;132:S204–241.
• Foster JP, Dawson JA, Davis PG, Dahlen HG. Routine oro/nasopharyngeal suction versus no suction at birth. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2017;4:CD010332.
• Higgins RD. Oxygen Saturation and Retinopathy of Prematurity. Clinics in Perinatology 2019;46:593-599.
• Laronche A, Popescu L, Benhamou D. An enhanced recovery programme after caesarean delivery increases maternal satisfaction and improves maternal- neonatal bonding: a case control study. European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 2017; 210:212–216.
• Pan PH, Moore CH. Comparing the efficacy of prophylactic metoclopramide, ondansetron and placebo in cesarean section patients given epidural anesthesia. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2001;13: 430–435.
• Harmon D, Ryan M, Kelly A, Bowen M. Acupressure and prevention of nausea and vomiting during and after spinal anaesthesia for cesarean section. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2000;84:463–467.
• Emmett RS, Cyna AM, Andrew M, Simmons SW. Techniques for preventing hypotension during spinal anesthesia for caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006;4:CD002251
• Liu ZQ, Du WJ, Yao SL. Enhanced recovery after cesarean delivery: a challenge for anesthesiologists. Chinese Medical Journal (Engl). 2020;133(5):590-596.
• Paranjothy S, Griffiths JD, Broughton HK, Gyte GM, Brown HC, Thomas J. Interventions at caesarean section for reducing the risk of aspiration pneumonitis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010;1:CD004943.
• Griffith JD, Gyte GML, Paranjothy S, Brown HC, Broughton HK, Thomas J. Interventions for preventing nausea and vomiting in women undergoing regional anaesthesia for caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012;9:CD007579.
• Habib AS, El-Moalem HE, Gan TJ. The efficacy of the 5-HT3 receptor antagonists combined with droperidol for PONV prophylaxis is similar to their combination with dexamethasone. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia 2004;51:311–319.
• American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management. Practice guidelines for acute pain management in the perioperative setting: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Acute Pain Management. Anesthesiology 2012;16:248–273.
• Benyamin R, Trescot AM, Datta S, et al. Opioid complications and side effects. Pain Physician. 2008;11:S105-120.
• Tan M, Siu-Chun Law L, Joo Gan T. Optimizing pain management to facilitate enhanced recovery after surgery pathways. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia 2015;62:203–218.
• Jalilian N, Ghadami MR. Randomized clinical trial comparing postoperative outcomes of early versus late oral feeding after cesarean section. The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 2014;40:1649–1652.
• Hsu YY, Hung HY, Chang YI. Early oral intake and gastrointestinal function after cesarean delivery: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2013;121:1327–1334.
• Charoenkwan K, Matovinovic E. Early versus delayed oral fluids and food for reducing complications after major abdominal gynaecologic surgery. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;2014:CD004508.
• Short V, Herbert G, Perry R, et al. Chewing gum for postoperative recovery of gastrointestinal function. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015;2:CD006506.
• Pereira Gomes Morais E, Riera R, Porfirio GJ, et al. Chewing gum for enhancing early recovery of bowel function after caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016;10: CD011562.
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in pregnancy: management from preconception to the postnatal period. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3. Accessed May 22, 2021.
• Suharwardy S, Carvalho B. Enhanced recovery after surgery for cesarean delivery. Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2020;32:113-120.
• ACOG Practice Bulletin, No., 196 Summary: thromboembolism in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2018; 132:243–248.
• Clark SL, Christmas JT, Frye DR, Meyers JA, Perlin JB. Maternal mortality in the United States: predictability and the impact of protocols on fatal postcesarean pulmonary embolism and hypertension-related intracranial hemorrhage. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2014;211:32.
• D’Alton ME, Friedman AM, Smiley RM, et al. National partnership for maternal safety: consensus bundle on venous thromboembolism. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2016; 123:942–949.
• Haines KJ, Skinner EH, Berney S; Austin Health POST Study Investigators. Association of postoperative pulmonary complications with delayed mobilisation following major abdominal surgery: an observational cohort study. Physiotherapy 2013;99:119-125.
• Ghoreishi J. Indwelling urinary catheters in cesarean delivery. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 2003;83:267–270.
• Nasr AM, El Bigawy AF, Abdelamid AE, Al- Khulaidi S, Al-Inany HG, Sayed EH. Evaluation of the use vs nonuse of urinary catheterization during cesarean delivery: a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial. Journal of Perinatology 2009;29:416–421.
• Abdel-Aleem H, Aboelnasr MF, Jayousi TM, Habib FA. Indwelling bladder catheterisation as part of intraoperative and postoperative care for caesarean section. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014;4:CD010322.
• El-Mazny A, El-Sharkawy M, Hassan A. A prospective randomized clinical trial comparing immediate versus delayed removal of urinary catheter following elective cesarean section. European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 2014;181:111–114.
• Murphy SL, Mathews TJ, Martin JA, Minkovitz CS, Strobino DM. Annual summary of vital statistics: 2013e2014. Pediatrics 2017;139. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-3239.