<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.4 20241031//EN"
        "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.4/JATS-journalpublishing1-4.dtd">
<article  article-type="research-article"        dtd-version="1.4">
            <front>

                <journal-meta>
                                                                <journal-id>gsumass letters</journal-id>
            <journal-title-group>
                                                                                    <journal-title>GSU Managerial and Social Sciences Letters</journal-title>
            </journal-title-group>
                                        <issn pub-type="epub">2980-1575</issn>
                                                                                            <publisher>
                    <publisher-name>Galatasaray Üniversitesi</publisher-name>
                </publisher>
                    </journal-meta>
                <article-meta>
                                        <article-id/>
                                                                <article-categories>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="en">
                                                            <subject>Political Science (Other)</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="tr">
                                                            <subject>Siyaset Bilimi (Diğer)</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                    </article-categories>
                                                                                                                                                        <title-group>
                                                                                                                        <article-title>Revisiting “Post-Neoliberalism” in Latin America’s Pink Tide: Brazil and Venezuela Compared</article-title>
                                                                                                                                                                                                <trans-title-group xml:lang="tr">
                                    <trans-title>Latin Amerika&#039;nın Pembe Dalga Sürecinde &quot;Post-Neoliberalizm&quot;in Yeniden Değerlendirilmesi: Brezilya ve Venezuela Karşılaştırması</trans-title>
                                </trans-title-group>
                                                                                                    </title-group>
            
                                                    <contrib-group content-type="authors">
                                                                        <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3952-2696</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Çiftçi</surname>
                                    <given-names>Atakan</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>GALATASARAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                                                </contrib-group>
                        
                                        <pub-date pub-type="pub" iso-8601-date="20251116">
                    <day>11</day>
                    <month>16</month>
                    <year>2025</year>
                </pub-date>
                                        <volume>3</volume>
                                        <issue>2</issue>
                                        <fpage>27</fpage>
                                        <lpage>45</lpage>
                        
                        <history>
                                    <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="20250427">
                        <day>04</day>
                        <month>27</month>
                        <year>2025</year>
                    </date>
                                                    <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="20250911">
                        <day>09</day>
                        <month>11</month>
                        <year>2025</year>
                    </date>
                            </history>
                                        <permissions>
                    <copyright-statement>Copyright © 2023, GSU Managerial and Social Sciences Letters</copyright-statement>
                    <copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
                    <copyright-holder>GSU Managerial and Social Sciences Letters</copyright-holder>
                </permissions>
            
                                                                                                <abstract><p>This article critically reassesses the &quot;post-neoliberal&quot; nature of Latin America&#039;s Pink Tide through a comparative analysis of Brazil and Venezuela. Emerging in the 2000s with anti-neoliberal rhetoric, these governments initially pursued redistributive policies, seemingly diverging from their predecessors’ neoliberal agendas. However, following the 2008 global financial crisis, the sustainability of these welfare-oriented programs was compromised, prompting the introduction of austerity measures. These policy shifts resulted in widespread public discontent, manifesting through electoral defeats and large-scale protests beginning around 2015, often characterized as a &quot;right turn&quot; or a &quot;return to neoliberalism.” By comparatively analyzing Brazil and Venezuela, often seen as representing the moderate and radical poles of the Pink Tide, this article challenges the notion of a coherent and lasting &quot;post-neoliberal&quot; phase. It argues that the Pink Tide’s redistributive initiatives were fundamentally dependent upon a favorable economic environment marked by surging commodity prices and abundant international liquidity. Consequently, the end of this favorable global economic context, rather than an external ideological shift, triggered policy reversals and austerity measures. Ultimately, the study contends that the alleged &quot;right turn&quot; in Latin America began not after the Pink Tide, but within it.</p></abstract>
                                                                                                                                    <trans-abstract xml:lang="tr">
                            <p>Bu makale, Latin Amerika’daki Pembe Dalga’nın “post-neoliberal” niteliğini Brezilya ve Venezuela’nın karşılaştırmalı analizi üzerinden eleştirel bir şekilde yeniden değerlendirmektedir. 2000’lerde anti-neoliberal bir söylemle ortaya çıkan bu hükümetler, başlangıçta seleflerinin neoliberal gündemlerinden ayrışan yeniden dağıtımcı politikalar izlediler. Ancak, 2008 küresel finansal krizinin ardından bu refah odaklı programların sürdürülebilirliği zayıfladı ve yerine kemer sıkma önlemleri getirildi. Bu politika değişimleri, 2015 civarında başlayan seçim yenilgileri ve geniş çaplı protestolarla kendini gösteren, yaygın halk hoşnutsuzluğuna yol açtı ve sıklıkla “sağa kayış” veya “neoliberalizme dönüş” olarak tanımlandı. Bu makale, Pembe Dalga’nın genellikle ılımlı ve radikal uçlarını temsil ettiği düşünülen Brezilya ve Venezuela vakalarını karşılaştırarak, tutarlı ve süreğen bir “post-neoliberal” dönemin varlığına dair görüşü sorgulamaktadır. Makale, Pembe Dalga’nın yeniden dağıtımcı girişimlerinin esasen yükselen emtia fiyatları ve bollaşan uluslararası likidite ile belirlenen elverişli bir ekonomik ortama bağımlı olduğunu öne sürmektedir. Dolayısıyla, bu elverişli küresel ekonomik koşulların sona ermesi, dışsal bir ideolojik değişimden ziyade, politik değişimleri ve kemer sıkma önlemlerini tetiklemiştir. Sonuç olarak çalışma, Latin Amerika’daki iddia edilen “sağa kayış”ın Pembe Dalga’nın sona ermesinin ardından değil, onun içerisinde başladığını ileri sürmektedir.</p></trans-abstract>
                                                            
            
                                                            <kwd-group>
                                                    <kwd>Pink Tide</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  post-neoliberalism</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Latin America</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Brazil</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Venezuela</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                        
                                                                            <kwd-group xml:lang="tr">
                                                    <kwd>Pink Tide</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  post-neoliberalism</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Latin America</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Brazil</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Venezuela</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                            </article-meta>
    </front>
    <back>
                            <ref-list>
                                    <ref id="ref1">
                        <label>1</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Acosta, A. (2013). Extractivism and neoextractivism: Two sides of the same curse. In M. Lang &amp; D. Mokrani (Eds.), Beyond development: Alternative visions from Latin America (pp. 61–86). Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref2">
                        <label>2</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Antunes, R., Santana, M. A., &amp; Praun, L. (2019). Chronicle of a defeat foretold: The PT administrations from compromise to the coup. Latin American Perspectives, 46(1), 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X18807210</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref3">
                        <label>3</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Astarita, R. (2018). Brasil: La economía del PT. Sin Permiso. http://www.sinpermiso.info/textos/brasil-la-economia-del-pt</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref4">
                        <label>4</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Avanzada Socialista. (2014). Tarifazo y ajuste frente a una coyuntura económica muy complicada. Liga Internacional de los Trabajadores - Cuarta Internacional. https://litci.org/es/menu/mundo/latinoamerica/argentina/tarifazo-y-ajuste-frente-a-una-coyuntura-economica-muy-complicada/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref5">
                        <label>5</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ban, C. (2012). Brazil’s liberal neo-developmentalism: New paradigm or edited orthodoxy? Review of International Political Economy, 20(2), 298–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.660183</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref6">
                        <label>6</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Bremmer, I. (2008). The Return of State Capitalism. Survival, 50(3), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396330802173198</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref7">
                        <label>7</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Burchardt, H., &amp; Dietz, K. (2014). (Neo-)Extractivism – A new challenge for development theory from Latin America. Third World Quarterly, 35(3), 468–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2014.893488</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref8">
                        <label>8</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Buxton, J. (2018). Venezuela: Deeper into the abyss. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 38(2). https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-090x2018000200409</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref9">
                        <label>9</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Castagna, E. (2015). Al fin de cuentas, ¿qué es el ajuste fiscal? Liga Internacional de los Trabajadores - Cuarta Internacional. https://litci.org/es/menu/lit-ci-y-partidos/partidos/pstu-brasil/al-fin-de-cuentas-que-es-el-ajuste-fiscal/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref10">
                        <label>10</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Castañeda, J. (2006). Latin America’s left turn. Foreign Affairs, 85(3), 28–43. http://class.povertylectures.com/CastenadaJorgeLatinAmericasLeft.pdf</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref11">
                        <label>11</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">CEPAL. (2011). Panorama social de América Latina 2011. Santiago de Chile: Publicaciones de Naciones Unidas. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/1241/1/S1100927_es.pdf</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref12">
                        <label>12</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cerdeira, B. (2018). La responsabilidad del PT en el ascenso de Bolsonaro. Liga Internacional de los Trabajadores - Cuarta Internacional. https://litci.org/es/la-responsabilidad-del-pt-ascenso-bolsonaro/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref13">
                        <label>13</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cerdeira, B. (2016). PT: El balance de un fracaso. Liga Internacional de los Trabajadores - Cuarta Internacional. https://litci.org/es/menu/mundo/latinoamerica/brasil/pt-el-balance-de-un-fracaso/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref14">
                        <label>14</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Cleary, M. (2006). A “Left Turn” in Latin America? Explaining the left’s resurgence. Journal of Democracy, 17(4), 35–49. https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/a-left-turn-in-latin-america-explaining-the-lefts-resurgence</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref15">
                        <label>15</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Clo, S. (2020). Varieties of state capitalism and reformed state-owned enterprises in the new millennium. In A. Musacchio &amp; M. A. Flores-Macias (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of state-owned enterprises. Routledge.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref16">
                        <label>16</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Corrales, J. (2010). The Repeating Revolution: Chávez’s New Politics and Old Economics. In K. Weyland, R. L. Madrid, &amp; W. Hunter (Eds.), Leftist governments in Latin America: Successes and shortcomings (pp. 28–56). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref17">
                        <label>17</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Corrales, J. (2015, May 7). Don’t blame it on the oil. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/07/dont-blame-it-on-the-oil-venezuela-caracas-maduro/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref18">
                        <label>18</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Dorlach, T. (2015). The prospects of egalitarian capitalism in the global South: Turkish social neoliberalism in comparative perspective. Economy and Society, 44(4), 519–544. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2015.1090736</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref19">
                        <label>19</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ellner, S. (2018). Class strategies in Chavista Venezuela: Pragmatic and populist policies in a broader context. Latin American Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X18798796</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref20">
                        <label>20</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ellner, S. (2019). Explanations for the current crisis in Venezuela: A clash of paradigms and narratives. Venezuelanalysis. https://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/14530/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref21">
                        <label>21</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ellner, S. (2023). Left government strategies toward business groups and the outcomes: The Mexican and Venezuelan cases. Latin American Perspectives, 50(2), 130–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X231153875</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref22">
                        <label>22</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Flores-Macías, G. A. (2012). After neoliberalism? The left and economic reforms in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref23">
                        <label>23</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Frens-String, J., &amp; Velasco, A. (2016). Right Turn. NACLA Report on the Americas, 48(4), 301–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714839.2016.1258269</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref24">
                        <label>24</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Frías, C. H. (2014). Agenda alternativa bolivariana. Caracas: Ediciones Correo del Orinoco.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref25">
                        <label>25</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Friedmann, G. C., &amp; Puty, C. A. C. B. (2019). Sailing against the wind: The rise and crisis of a low-conflict progressivism. Latin American Perspectives, 47(1), 83–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X19884361</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref26">
                        <label>26</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Fuentes, F. (2014). South America: How ‘anti-extractivism’ misses the forest for the trees. Green Left Weekly. https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/how-anti-extractivism-misses-forest-trees</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref27">
                        <label>27</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Graham-Harrison, E., &amp; Zuñiga, M. (2018, March 6). Over half of young Venezuelans want to flee as economy collapses, poll finds. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/06/young-venezuelans-want-to-flee-as-economy-collapses-poll-finds</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref28">
                        <label>28</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Grigera, J. (2017). Populism in Latin America: Old and new populisms in Argentina and Brazil. International Political Science Review, 38(4), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512117701510</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref29">
                        <label>29</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Grugel, J., &amp; Riggirozzi, P. (2018a). Neoliberal disruption and neoliberalism’s afterlife in Latin America: What is left of post-neoliberalism? Critical Social Policy, 38(3), 547–566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018318765857</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref30">
                        <label>30</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Grugel, J., &amp; Riggirozzi, P. (2018b). New directions in welfare: Rights-based social policies in post-neoliberal Latin America. Third World Quarterly, 39(3), 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1392084</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref31">
                        <label>31</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Gudynas, E. (2009). Diez tesis urgentes sobre el nuevo extractivismo. In Extractivismo, política y sociedad (pp. 187–225). CAAP &amp; CLAES: Quito.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref32">
                        <label>32</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hadiz, V. R., &amp; Angelos, C. (2017). Populism in world politics: A comparative cross-regional perspective. International Political Science Review, 38(4), 399–411.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref33">
                        <label>33</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Handlin, S. (2018). The logic of polarizing populism: State crises and polarization in South America. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(1), 75–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218756922</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref34">
                        <label>34</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Harnecker, M. (2015). A world to build: New paths toward twenty-first century socialism. New York: Monthly Review Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref35">
                        <label>35</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Harvey, D. (2005). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref36">
                        <label>36</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Hetland, G. (2025). Capitalism and authoritarianism in Maduro’s Venezuela. New Labor Forum. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10957960251332582</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref37">
                        <label>37</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Koch, M. (2014, February 6). Argentina struggling—again—with inflation. Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/en/argentina-struggling-again-with-inflation/a17429229</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref38">
                        <label>38</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Lander, E. (2024). Against authoritarianism and neoliberalism in Venezuela: A view from the critical left. Transnational Institute. https://www.tni.org/en/article/against-authoritarianism-and-neoliberalism-in-venezuela</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref39">
                        <label>39</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Levitsky, S., &amp; Roberts, K. (2011). Introduction: Latin America’s “left turn”: A framework for analysis. In S. Levitsky &amp; K. Roberts (Eds.), The resurgence of the Latin American left (pp. 1–30). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref40">
                        <label>40</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Loureiro, P. M., &amp; Saad-Filho, A. (2019). The limits of pragmatism: The rise and fall of the Brazilian Workers’ Party (2002–2016). Latin American Perspectives, 46(1), 66–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0094582X18805093</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref41">
                        <label>41</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Madrid, R. L. (2010). The Origins of the Two Lefts in Latin America. Political Science Quarterly, 125(4), 587–609. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25767091</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref42">
                        <label>42</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Martins, C. E. (2006). Lula government and the Brazilian political scenario. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(8), 679–681. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4417861</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref43">
                        <label>43</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Morais, L., &amp; Saad-Filho, A. (2005). Lula and the continuity of neoliberalism in Brazil. Historical Materialism, 13(1), 3–32.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref44">
                        <label>44</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Morais, L., &amp; Saad-Filho, A. (2012). Neo-developmentalism and the challenges of economic policy-making under Dilma Rousseff. Critical Sociology, 38(6), 789–798. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920512441635</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref45">
                        <label>45</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mouzelis, N. (1985). On the Concept of Populism. Politics &amp; Society, 14(3), 329–348.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref46">
                        <label>46</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(3), 541–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref47">
                        <label>47</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Opinión Socialista. (2015). El gobierno de Dilma anuncia nuevos cortes. Liga Internacional de los Trabajadores - Cuarta Internacional. https://litci.org/es/el-gobierno-de-dilma-anuncia-nuevos-cortes/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref48">
                        <label>48</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Papadopoulos, T., &amp; Leyer, R. V. (2016). Two decades of social investment in Latin America: Outcomes, shortcomings and achievements of conditional cash transfers. Social Policy and Society, 15(3), 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746416000117</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref49">
                        <label>49</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Petkoff, T. (2005). Las dos izquierdas. Nueva Sociedad, 197, 114–128. https://nuso.org/articulo/las-dos-izquierdas/</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref50">
                        <label>50</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Petras, J. (2009). Latin America: Perspectives for socialism in a time of a world capitalist recession. Critique, 37(3), 441–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/03017600902989864</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref51">
                        <label>51</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Petras, J. (2015, December 16). The demise of incumbents: Resurgence of the far right, absence of the ‘consequential left’. Global Research.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref52">
                        <label>52</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Phillips, T. (2018, August 19). Fleeing Venezuelans face suspicion and hostility as migration crisis worsens. The Guardian.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref53">
                        <label>53</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Prados, L. (2013, April 10). Fraud and manipulation claims tarnish post-Chávez election. El País.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref54">
                        <label>54</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Restrepo Botero, D. I., &amp; Peña Galeano, C. A. (2017). Territories in dispute: Tensions between ‘extractivism’, ethnic rights, local governments and the environment in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. International Development Policy, 9.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref55">
                        <label>55</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Rojas, R. (2017). The ebbing “Pink Tide”: An autopsy of left-wing regimes in Latin America. New Labor Forum, 26(2), 70–82.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref56">
                        <label>56</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Rojas, P. R. (2006). Hacia el socialismo del siglo XXI. Aporrea.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref57">
                        <label>57</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Ruckert, A., MacDonald, L., &amp; Proulx, K. (2016). Post-neoliberalism in Latin America: A conceptual review. Third World Quarterly, 38(7), 1583–1602.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref58">
                        <label>58</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Rutar, T. (2023). What is neoliberalism really? Social Science Information, 62(3), 295–322.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref59">
                        <label>59</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Saad-Filho, A. (2019). Varieties of neoliberalism in Brazil (2003–2019). Latin American Perspectives, 47(1), 9–27.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref60">
                        <label>60</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sánchez, R. L. (2023). The Bolivarian process in Venezuela: Socialism, populism or neoliberalism? In R. Munck, M. Mastrangelo, &amp; P. Pozzi (Eds.), Populism: Latin American perspectives (pp. 121–138). Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref61">
                        <label>61</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Smink, V. (2010, December 27). El precio social y político del “gasolinazo” en Bolivia. BBC Mundo.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref62">
                        <label>62</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Sorans, M., &amp; Porras, S. R. (2018). Por qué fracasó el chavismo? Buenos Aires: Centro de Estudios Humanos y Sociales.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref63">
                        <label>63</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Svampa, M. (2017). Del cambio de época al fin de ciclo. Buenos Aires: Edhasa.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref64">
                        <label>64</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Vivanco, P. (2018, October 25). Latin America’s right-wing turn. Jacobin.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref65">
                        <label>65</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Weyland, K. (2010). The performance of leftist governments in Latin America: Conceptual and theoretical issues. In K. Weyland, R. Madrid, &amp; W. Hunter (Eds.), Leftist governments in Latin America (pp. 1–27). Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref66">
                        <label>66</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Wilson, P. (2015, April 27). The collapse of Chávezcare. Foreign Policy.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref67">
                        <label>67</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">World Bank. (2007, August 22). Bolsa Família: Changing the lives of millions in Brazil. World Bank.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref68">
                        <label>68</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">World Bank. (2025). GDP growth (annual %) – Latin America &amp; Caribbean. World Development Indicators.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                                    <ref id="ref69">
                        <label>69</label>
                        <mixed-citation publication-type="journal">Yates, J., &amp; Bakker, K. (2014). Debating the ‘post-neoliberal turn’ in Latin America. Progress in Human Geography, 38(1), 62–90.</mixed-citation>
                    </ref>
                            </ref-list>
                    </back>
    </article>
