Synthesis and Characterization of Porous Materials from Waste Wheat Bran

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate how the amount of ZnCl2 and temperature affect the process of converting waste wheat bran, known for its hemicellulose struc-ture, into porous material. The characterization of the wheat bran was done using proximate and primary component analysis, and Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) test, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) spectra, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) results, and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. The influence of temperature on the surface areas of activated carbons is more significant than the impact of varying the amount of ZnCl2. When the carbonization temperature reached 500 °C, porous structures developed, and the highest surface areas achieved for all impregnation ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1) were 1234, 1478, and 1422 m2/g, respectively. Activated carbon was found to have acidic (0.88 mmol/g) and basic (0.54 mmol/g) functional groups on its surface, after being synthesized through carbonization at 500 °C using ZnCl2 at a 2:1 impregnation ratio in accordance with Boehm titration. This promising activared carbon made from wheat bran, activated by ZnCl2, is efficient and environmentally friendly, and it is a potential solution for water pollution treatment.

Keywords

• Activated carbon
• surface characterization
• biomass (wheat bran)
• chemical activation
• characterization

References

1. 1. Daoud M, Benturki O, Girods P, Donnot A, Fontana S. Adsorption ability of activated carbons from Phoenix dactylifera rachis and Ziziphus jujube stones for the removal of commercial dye and the treatment of dyestuff wastewater. Microchem J. 2019 Jul;148:493–502.
2. 2. Azam K, Shezad N, Shafiq I, Akhter P, Akhtar F, Jamil F, et al. A review on activated carbon modifications for the treatment of wastewater containing anionic dyes. Chemosphere. 2022 Nov 1;306:135566.
3. 3. Mahmoud Amer, Ahmed Elwardany. Biomass Carbonization. In: Mansour Al Qubeissi, Ahmad El-kharouf, Hakan Serhad Soyhan, editors. Renewable Energy [Internet]. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2020 [cited 2024 May 25]. p. Ch. 11. Available from: https://doi. org/10.5772/intechopen.90480
4. 4. Reza MS, Yun CS, Afroze S, Radenahmad N, Bakar MSA, Saidur R, et al. Preparation of activated carbon from biomass and its’ applications in water and gas purification, a review. Arab J Basic Appl Sci. 2020 Jan 1;27(1):208–38.
5. 5. Świątkowski A. Industrial carbon adsorbents. In: Adsorption and its Applications in Industry and Environmental Protection. 1999. (Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis; vol. 179).
6. 6. Rafatullah Mohd, Sulaiman O, Hashim R, Ahmad A. Adsorption of methylene blue on low-cost adsorbents: A review. J Hazard Mater. 2010 May;177(1–3):70–80.
7. 7. Tadda MA, Ahsan A, Shitu A, ElSergany M, Arunkumar T, Jose B, et al. A review on activated carbon: process, application and prospects. J Adv Civ Eng Pract Res. 2016;2(1):7–13.
8. 8. FAOSTAT. Value of Agricultural Production [Internet]. 2024. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QV

9. 9. Zhang Y. Preparation of Hierarchical Porous Carbon from Wheat Bran for Free-Standing Electrode of High Areal Capacitance Supercapacitor.
10. 10. Koli A, Kumar A, Pattanshetti A, Supale A, Garadkar K, Shen J, et al. Hierarchical Porous Activated Carbon from Wheat Bran Agro-Waste: Applications in Carbon Dioxide Capture, Dye Removal, Oxygen and Hydrogen Evolution Reactions. ChemPlusChem. 2024 Mar;89(3):e202300373.
11. 11. Wang D, Min Y, Yu Y. Facile synthesis of wheat bran-derived honeycomb-like hierarchical carbon for advanced symmetric supercapacitor applications. J Solid State Electrochem. 2015 Feb;19(2):577–84.
12. 12. Hu X, Li Y, Du J, Sun J, He C, Xiong Y, et al. Waste Biomass-Derived Carbon with Ultrahigh Adsorption Capacity for Anionic and Cationic Dyes and Antibiotics in a Wide pH Range. Ind Eng Chem Res. 2024 Mar 13;63(10):4702–13.
13. 13. Ioannidou O, Zabaniotou A. Agricultural residues as precursors for activated carbon production—A review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2007 Dec;11(9):1966–2005.
14. 14. Ma Y. Comparison of Activated Carbons Prepared from Wheat Straw via ZnCl2 and KOH Activation. Waste Biomass Valorization. 2017 Apr;8(3):549–59.
15. 15. Kierzek K, Gryglewicz G. Activated Carbons and Their Evaluation in Electric Double Layer Capacitors. Molecules. 2020 Sep 16;25(18):4255.
16. 16. Zhao H, Zhong H, Jiang Y, Li H, Tang P, Li D, et al. Porous ZnCl2-Activated Carbon from Shaddock Peel: Methylene Blue Adsorption Behavior. Materials. 2022 Jan 25;15(3):895.
17. 17. Ma J, Yang H, Li L, Xie X, Liu B, Zhang L. Synthesis of Aligned ZnO Submicron Rod Arrays by Heating Zinc Foil Covered with ZnCl2 Solution. Acta Chim Sin. 2009 Jul 14;67:1515–22.
18. 18. Moralı U, Demiral H, Şensöz S. Optimization of activated carbon production from sunflower seed extracted meal: Taguchi design of experiment approach and analysis of variance. J Clean Prod. 2018 Jul;189:602–11.
19. 19. Demiral H, Gündüzoğlu G. Removal of nitrate from aqueous solutions by activated carbon prepared from sugar beet bagasse. Bioresour Technol. 2010 Mar;101(6):1675–80.
20. 20. Ghodrat A, Yaghobfar A, Ebrahimnezhad Y, Aghdam Shahryar H, Gorbani A. In vitro Binding Capacity of Wheat and Barley for Mn, Zn, Cu and Fe. Int J Life Sci. 2015 Sep 26;9:56.
21. 21. Li C, Wang L, Chen Z, Li Y, Luo X, Zhao F. Ozonolysis of wheat bran in subcritical water for enzymatic saccharification and polysaccharide recovery. J Supercrit Fluids. 2021 Feb;168:105092.
22. 22. Escalante J, Chen WH, Tabatabaei M, Hoang AT, Kwon EE, Andrew Lin KY, et al. Pyrolysis of lignocellulosic, algal, plastic, and other biomass wastes for biofuel production and circular bioeconomy: A review of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) approach. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2022 Nov;169:112914.
23. 23. Pooladi H, Foroutan R, Esmaeili H. Synthesis of wheat bran sawdust/Fe3O4 composite for the removal of methylene blue and methyl violet. Environ Monit Assess. 2021 Apr 16;193(5):276.
24. 24. Kabdaşlı I, Vardar B, Arslan-Alaton I, Tünay O. Effect of dye auxiliaries on color and COD removal from simulated reactive dyebath effluent by electrocoagulation. Chem Eng J. 2009 May;148(1):89–96.
25. 25. Shafeeyan MS, Daud WMAW, Houshmand A, Shamiri A. A review on surface modification of activated carbon for carbon dioxide adsorption. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 2010 Nov;89(2):143–51.
26. 26. Pellenz L, De Oliveira CRS, Da Silva Júnior AH, Da Silva LJS, Da Silva L, Ulson De Souza AA, et al. A comprehensive guide for characterization of adsorbent materials. Sep Purif Technol. 2023 Jan;305:122435.
27. 27. Fanning PE, Vannice MA. A DRIFTS study of the formation of surface groups on carbon by oxidation. Carbon. 1993;31(5):721–30.
28. 28. Shafeeyan MS, Daud WMAW, Houshmand A, Arami-Niya A. Ammonia modification of activated carbon to enhance carbon dioxide adsorption: Effect of pre-oxidation. Appl Surf Sci. 2011 Feb;257(9):3936–42.
29. 29. Hoseinzadeh Hesas R, Arami-Niya A, Wan Daud WMA, Sahu JN. Preparation and Characterization of Activated Carbon from Apple Waste by Microwave-Assisted Phosphoric Acid Activation: Application in Methylene Blue Adsorption. BioResources. 2013 Apr 30;8(2):2950–66.
30. 30. Shen DK, Gu S, Bridgwater AV. Study on the pyrolytic behaviour of xylan-based hemicellulose using TG–FTIR and Py–GC–FTIR. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 2010 Mar;87(2):199–206.
31. 31. Kaouah F, Boumaza S, Berrama T, Trari M, Bendjama Z. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from wild olive cores (oleaster) by H3PO4 for the removal of Basic Red 46. J Clean Prod. 2013 Sep;54:296–306.
32. 32. Jia Y, Xiao B, Thomas K. Adsorption of metal ions on nitrogen surface functional groups in activated carbons. Langmuir. 2001 Dec;18.
33. 33. Gulnaz O, Kaya A, Dincer S. The reuse of dried activated sludge for adsorption of reactive dye. J Hazard Mater. 2006 Jun;134(1–3):190–6.
34. 34. Biniak S, Świątkowski A, Pakuła M, Sankowska M, Kuśmierek K, Trykowski G. Cyclic voltammetric and FTIR studies of powdered carbon electrodes in the electrosorption of 4-chlorophenols from aqueous electrolytes. Carbon. 2013 Jan;51:301–12.
35. 35. Barroso-Bogeat A, Alexandre-Franco M, Fernandez-Gonzalez C, Gomez-Serrano V. FT-IR Analysis of Pyrone and Chromene Structures in Activated Carbon. Energy Fuels. 2014 Jun;28(6):4096–103.
36. 36. Cagniant D, Gruber R, Boudou JP, Bilem C, Bimer J, Salbut PD. Structural Characterization of Nitrogen-Enriched Coals. Energy Fuels. 1998 Jul 1;12(4):672–81.
37. 37. Boonamnuayvitaya V, Sae-ung S, Tanthapanichakoon W. Preparation of activated carbons from coffee residue for the adsorption of formaldehyde. Sep Purif Technol. 2005 Mar;42(2):159–68.
38. 38. El-Hendawy ANA. Variation in the FTIR spectra of a biomass under impregnation, carbonization and oxidation conditions. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 2006 Mar;75(2):159–66.
39. 39. Guo Y, Rockstraw DA. Activated carbons prepared from rice hull by one-step phosphoric acid activation. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2007 Mar;100(1–3):12–9.
40. 40. Momcilovic M, Purenovic M, Bojic A, Zarubica A, Randelovic M. Removal of lead(II) ions from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto pine cone activated carbon. Desalination. 2011 Aug;276(1–3):53–9.
41. 41. Gurten II, Ozmak M, Yagmur E, Aktas Z. Preparation and characterisation of activated carbon from waste tea using K2CO3. Biomass Bioenergy. 2012 Feb;37:73–81.
42. 42. Xu J, Chen L, Qu H, Jiao Y, Xie J, Xing G. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from reedy grass leaves by chemical activation with H3PO4. Appl Surf Sci. 2014 Nov;320:674–80.
43. 43. Silva TP, Ferreira AN, De Albuquerque FS, De Almeida Barros AC, Da Luz JMR, Gomes FS, et al. Box–Behnken experimental design for the optimization of enzymatic saccharification of wheat bran. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. 2022 Dec;12(12):5597–604.
44. 44. Chaquilla-Quilca G, Balandrán-Quintana RR, Azamar-Barrios JA, Ramos-Clamont Montfort G, Mendoza-Wilson AM, Mercado-Ruiz JN, et al. Synthesis of tubular nanostructures from wheat bran albumins during proteolysis with V8 protease in the presence of calcium ions. Food Chem. 2016 Jun;200:16–23.
45. 45. Zhang Y, Song X, Xu Y, Shen H, Kong X, Xu H. Utilization of wheat bran for producing activated carbon with high specific surface area via NaOH activation using industrial furnace. J Clean Prod. 2019 Feb;210:366–75.
46. 46. Zhang T, Walawender W, Fan L, Fan M, Daugaard D, Brown R. Preparation of activated carbon from forest and agricultural residues through CO activation. Chem Eng J. 2004 Dec 15;105(1–2):53–9.
47. 47. Pallares J, González-Cencerrado A, Arauzo I. Production and characterization of activated carbon from barley straw by physical activation with carbon dioxide and steam. Biomass Bioenergy. 2018 Aug;115:64–73.
48. 48. Angin D. Production and characterization of activated carbon from sour cherry stones by zinc chloride. Fuel. 2014 Jan;115:804–11.
49. 49. Leong ZY, Lu G, Yang HY. Three-dimensional graphene oxide and polyvinyl alcohol composites as structured activated carbons for capacitive desalination. Desalination. 2019 Feb;451:172–81.
50. 50. Meng H shan, Chen C, Yan Z run, Li X yan, Xu J, Sheng G ping. Co-doping polymethyl methacrylate and copper tailings to improve the performances of sludge-derived particle electrode. Water Res. 2019 Nov;165:115016.
51. 51. Liu Z, Zhao C, Wang P, Zheng H, Sun Y, Dionysiou DD. Removal of carbamazepine in water by electro-activated carbon fiber-peroxydisulfate: Comparison, optimization, recycle, and mechanism study. Chem Eng J. 2018 Jul;343:28–36.
52. 52. Deng H, Yang L, Tao G, Dai J. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from cotton stalk by microwave assisted chemical activation—Application in methylene blue adsorption from aqueous solution. J Hazard Mater. 2009 Jul 30;166(2–3):1514–21.
53. 53. Baccar R, Bouzid J, Feki M, Montiel A. Preparation of activated carbon from Tunisian olive-waste cakes and its application for adsorption of heavy metal ions. J Hazard Mater. 2009 Mar;162(2–3):1522–9.
54. 54. Liu QS, Zheng T, Wang P, Guo L. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from bamboo by microwave-induced phosphoric acid activation. Ind Crops Prod. 2010 Mar;31(2):233–8.
55. 55. Mahapatra K, Ramteke DS, Paliwal LJ. Production of activated carbon from sludge of food processing industry under controlled pyrolysis and its application for methylene blue removal. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis. 2012 May;95:79–86.