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            <front>

                <journal-meta>
                                                                <journal-id>ij3dptdi</journal-id>
            <journal-title-group>
                                                                                    <journal-title>International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry</journal-title>
            </journal-title-group>
                            <issn pub-type="ppub">2602-3350</issn>
                                        <issn pub-type="epub">2602-3350</issn>
                                                                                            <publisher>
                    <publisher-name>Kerim ÇETİNKAYA</publisher-name>
                </publisher>
                    </journal-meta>
                <article-meta>
                                        <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.46519/ij3dptdi.1784332</article-id>
                                                                <article-categories>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="en">
                                                            <subject>Simulation, Modelling, and Programming of Mechatronics Systems</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                            <subj-group  xml:lang="tr">
                                                            <subject>Mekatronik Sistemlerin Simülasyonu, Modellenmesi ve Programlanması</subject>
                                                    </subj-group>
                                    </article-categories>
                                                                                                                                                        <title-group>
                                                                                                                        <article-title>FORCE ESTIMATION IN SMART INSOLES USING RANDOMLY PLACED OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS AND MACHINE LEARNING</article-title>
                                                                                                                                                                                                <trans-title-group xml:lang="tr">
                                    <trans-title>FORCE ESTIMATION IN SMART INSOLES USING RANDOMLY PLACED OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS AND MACHINE LEARNING</trans-title>
                                </trans-title-group>
                                                                                                                                        </title-group>
            
                                                    <contrib-group content-type="authors">
                                                                        <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5871-2682</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Öztürksoy</surname>
                                    <given-names>Hüseyin</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>PAMUKKALE UNIVERSITY</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                    <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0939-3547</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Özek</surname>
                                    <given-names>Ahmet</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>PAMUKKALE ÜNİVERSİTESİ, MÜHENDİSLİK FAKÜLTESİ</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                    <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8875-0775</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Ekici</surname>
                                    <given-names>Murat</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>DOKUZ EYLÜL ÜNİVERSİTESİ, EFES MESLEK YÜKSEKOKULU</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                    <contrib contrib-type="author">
                                                                    <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">
                                        https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9849-3338</contrib-id>
                                                                <name>
                                    <surname>Seçkin</surname>
                                    <given-names>Ahmet Çağdaş</given-names>
                                </name>
                                                                    <aff>ADNAN MENDERES UNIVERSITY</aff>
                                                            </contrib>
                                                                                </contrib-group>
                        
                                        <pub-date pub-type="pub" iso-8601-date="20251228">
                    <day>12</day>
                    <month>28</month>
                    <year>2025</year>
                </pub-date>
                                        <volume>9</volume>
                                        <issue>3</issue>
                                        <fpage>569</fpage>
                                        <lpage>578</lpage>
                        
                        <history>
                                    <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="20250915">
                        <day>09</day>
                        <month>15</month>
                        <year>2025</year>
                    </date>
                                                    <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="20251124">
                        <day>11</day>
                        <month>24</month>
                        <year>2025</year>
                    </date>
                            </history>
                                        <permissions>
                    <copyright-statement>Copyright © 2017, International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry</copyright-statement>
                    <copyright-year>2017</copyright-year>
                    <copyright-holder>International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry</copyright-holder>
                </permissions>
            
                                                                                                <abstract><p>This paper presents a smart insole that combines flexible TPU optical fiber sensors with force-sensitive resistors (FSRs) on a 3D-printed TPU base to estimate plantar forces during walking. Three thermoplastic polyurethane optical fibers, illuminated by red lasers and read by light-dependent resistors, were routed in a non-anatomical, irregular (‘random’) layout and compared against six FSR channels taken as reference targets. Signals were sampled and streamed via an ESP32 microcontroller over Bluetooth. Using a sliding-window approach (20 samples), simple statistical features from the three optical channels were used to train supervised regressors—Gradient Boosting, Adaptive Boosting, and a shallow artificial neural network—to predict each FSR output. Across sensors, models achieved R² between 0.865 and 0.951 and mean absolute error (MAE) between 29.0 and 48.9. Adaptive Boosting gave the lowest average MAE and stable R², while the artificial neural network reached the highest R² for several regions. Results show that accurate force estimation is possible without anatomically precise sensor placement, reducing hardware complexity and cost while keeping performance suitable for gait analysis and wearable health applications.</p></abstract>
                                                                                                                                    <trans-abstract xml:lang="tr">
                            <p>This paper presents a smart insole that combines flexible TPU optical fiber sensors with force-sensitive resistors (FSRs) on a 3D-printed TPU base to estimate plantar forces during walking. Three thermoplastic polyurethane optical fibers, illuminated by red lasers and read by light-dependent resistors, were routed in a non-anatomical, irregular (‘random’) layout and compared against six FSR channels taken as reference targets. Signals were sampled and streamed via an ESP32 microcontroller over Bluetooth. Using a sliding-window approach (20 samples), simple statistical features from the three optical channels were used to train supervised regressors—Gradient Boosting, Adaptive Boosting, and a shallow artificial neural network—to predict each FSR output. Across sensors, models achieved R² between 0.865 and 0.951 and mean absolute error (MAE) between 29.0 and 48.9. Adaptive Boosting gave the lowest average MAE and stable R², while the artificial neural network reached the highest R² for several regions. Results show that accurate force estimation is possible without anatomically precise sensor placement, reducing hardware complexity and cost while keeping performance suitable for gait analysis and wearable health applications.</p></trans-abstract>
                                                                                    
            
                                                            <kwd-group>
                                                    <kwd>Optical Sensor</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  TPU Optical Fiber</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Machine learning</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Smart İnsole</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                    
                                                                            <kwd-group xml:lang="tr">
                                                    <kwd>Optical Sensor</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  TPU Optical Fiber</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Machine learning</kwd>
                                                    <kwd>  Smart İnsole</kwd>
                                            </kwd-group>
                                                                                                                                    <funding-group specific-use="FundRef">
                    <award-group>
                                                    <funding-source>
                                <named-content content-type="funder_name">Pamukkale University</named-content>
                            </funding-source>
                                                                            <award-id>2022FEBE024</award-id>
                                            </award-group>
                </funding-group>
                                </article-meta>
    </front>
    <back>
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    </article>
