A Model of Well-Being to Protect Mental Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abstract

In this study; a structural model for the psychological well-being of teachers in the beginning epidemic of COVID-19 has been constructed and it is aimed to examine the mediating role of hope in the relationship between psychological resilience and psychological well-being. A total of 1059 teachers serving in Turkey, 729 female (%68.8) and 330 male (%31.2), whose ages vary between 21 and 62 (▁X=35.83; SD=9.17), participated voluntarily in this study. Brief resilience scale, dispositional hope scale and psychological well-being scale were used for data collection. Testing the hypothetically determined model was carried out with the Structural Equation Modeling technique and the significance of its indirect effects was assessed by bootstrapping analysis. As a result, a structural well-being model has been obtained for teachers to protect their mental health and it was proved that hope has a full mediating role in the relationship between psychological resilience and psychological well-being in this research.

Keywords

• COVID-19 pandemic
• resilience
• hope
• psychological well-being
• teacher

References

1. Alhija, F. N.-A. ve Wisenbaker, J. (2006). A Monte Carlo Study investigating the impact of item parceling strategies on parameter estimates and their standard errors in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 13(2), 204–228. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1302
2. Allen, W. (2016). Examining the relationships between stress, depression, anxiety, and resilience in undergraduate Nursing Students (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of North Georgia, Georgia
3. Altıntaş, D. (2019). Şiddete maruz kalmaya bağlı olarak psikolojik dayanıklılık, bağışlayıcılık ve psikolojik iyi oluş arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Ufuk Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Ankara.
4. APA- American Psychological Association. 2010. The publication manual of the american psychological association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
5. Barker, C., & Martin, B. (2009). Dilemmas in teaching happiness. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 6(2), 1-14.
6. Baron, R.M. ve Kenny, D.A. (1989). The moderatormediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182.
7. Bradburn, N.M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Oxford, England: Aldine.
8. Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist. 59, 20-28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20

9. Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet. 395, 912-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
10. Chang, E. C. (2003). A critical appraisal and extension of hope theory in middle-aged men and women: Is it important to distinguish agency and pathways components? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22, 121-143.
11. Charles, V. (2013). Positive psychological factors in late adolescence: The role of resilience and hope in the well-being of 16 to 18 year olds. Doctoral dissertation, University of Liverpool.
12. Conversano, C., Rotondo, A., Lensi, E., Vista, O., Arpone, F., & Reda, M. (2010). Optimism and Its Impact on Mental and Physical Well-Being. Erişim tarihi: 10 Haziran 2020, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC28944 61/
13. Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Biswas-Diener, R., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., et al. (2009). New measures of wellbeing. Social Indicators Research Series, 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4 12
14. Dodge, R., Daly, A., Huyton, J. and Sanders, L. (2012), “The challenge of defining wellbeing”, International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(3), 222-235.
15. Doğan, T. (2015). Kısa psikolojik sağlamlık ölçeği’nin Türkçe uyarlaması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 3(1), 93-102.
16. Dubey, S., Biswas, P., Ghosh, R., Chatterjee, S., Dubey, M. J., Chatterjee, S., ... & Lavie, C. J. (2020). Psychosocial impact of COVID-19. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews. 14, 779-788.
17. Garcia, D. (2011). Adolescents' happiness: The Role of the affective temperament model on memory and apprehension of events, subjective well-being, and psychological well-being. Doctoral dissertation, University of Psychology.
18. Garcia, D., & Moradi, S. (2013). The affective temperaments and well-being: Swedish and Iranian adolescents’ life satisfaction and psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(2), 689-707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9349-z
19. Faso, D. J., Neal-Beevers, A. R., & Carlson, C. L. (2013). Vicarious futurity, hope, and well-being in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(2), 288-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.08.014
20. Ghadami E. & Khalatbari, J. (2015). The relationship between optimism and resiliency and marital satisfaction among married students in Kerman University of Medical Sciences (2013- 2014). International Research Journal of Social Science and Management, 2, 57-64.
21. Ghavidel, M., & Zarei, H.A. (2018). The Mediating Role of Hope in the Relationship between Social Phobia and Resilience, and Subjective Well-being among Students. Community Health, 5(4), 328-37. http://doi.org/10.22037/ch.v5i4.19477
22. He, F., Cao, R., Feng, Z., Guan, H., & Peng, J. (2013). The impacts of dispositional optimism and psychological resilience on the subjective well-being of burn patients: A structural equation modelling analysis. Plos One, 8(12), http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082939
23. Harding, T., Lopez, V., & Klainin-Yobas, P. (2019). Predictors of psychological well-being among higher education students. Psychology, 10, 578-594. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2019.104037
24. Harding, S., Morris, R., Gunnell, D., Ford, T., Hollingworth, W., Tilling, K., … Kidger, J. (2019). Is teachers’ mental health and wellbeing associated with students’ mental health and wellbeing? Journal of Affective Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.03.046
25. Hawryluck, L., Gold, W. L., Robinson, S., Pogorski, S., Galea, S., & Styra, R. (2004). SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10(7), 1206-1212. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1007.030703
26. Holdcraft, C., & Williamson, C. (1991). Assessment of hope in psychiatric and chemically dependent patients. Applied Nursing Research, 4(3), 129-134.
27. Horton, T. V., & Wallander, J. L. (2001). Hope and social support as resilience factors against psychological distress of mothers who care for children with chronic physical conditions. Rehabilitation Psychology, 46(4), 382.
28. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. 1999. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
29. Karacaoğlu, K & Köktaş, G . (2016). Psikolojik dayanıklılık ve psikolojik iyi olma ilişkisinde iyimserliğin aracı rolü: hastane çalışanları üzerine bir araştırma. İş ve İnsan Dergisi, 3 (2) , 119-127 . https://doi.org/10.18394/iid.20391
30. Keye, M., & Pidgeon, A. (2014). Relationship between resilience, mindfulness, and psychological well-being in university students. International Journal of Liberal Arts Soc Sci, 2(5), 27-32.
31. Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: the empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007-1022. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.1007
32. Kırmızıgül, H . (2020). COVID-19 salgini ve beraberinde getirdiği eğitim süreci. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi , 7(5), 283-289 .
33. King, L. A., Hicks, J.A., Krull, J., Del Gaiso, A. K. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.179
34. Kluge HNP. Statement- physical and mental health key to resilience during COVID-19 pandemic. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/ health-emergencies/coronavirus-COVID-19/statements/statement-physicaland-mental-health-key-to-resilience-during-COVID-19-pandemic (Erişim tarihi: 13 Haziran 2020).
35. Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.
36. Kylma, J. (2005). Dynamics of hope in adults living with HIV/AIDS: a substantive theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(6), 620-630.
37. Lai, J., Ma, S., Wang, Y., Cai, Z., Hu, J., Wei, N., ... & Tan, H. (2020). Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. JAMA network open, 3(3), e203976-e203976.
38. Lawton, M. P. (1983). Environment and other determinants of weil-being in older people. The Gerontologist, 23(4), 349-357.
39. Liu, S., Yang, L., Zhang, C., Xiang, Y. T., Liu, Z., Hu, S., & Zhang, B. (2020). Online mental health services in China during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(4), e17–e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30077-8.
40. Lloyd, T. J., & Hastings, R. (2009). Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 53(12), 957-968. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2009.01206.x
41. MacIntyre, P. D., Gregersen, T., & Mercer, S. (2020). Language teachers’ coping strategies during the Covid-19 conversion to online teaching: Correlations with stress, wellbeing and negative emotions. System, 94, 102352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102352
42. Malkoç, A. & Yalçın, İ. (2015). Relationships among resilience, social support, coping, and psychological well-being among university students. Turkish Psychological Counselling and Guidance Journal, 5(43), 35-43.
43. Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Vincent, L., Bennett, J., Peladeau, N., Leszcz, M., ... & Mazzulli, T. (2003). The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. Cmaj, 168(10), 1245-1251.
44. Masten, A. S. and Reed, M.G.J. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74-88). New York: Oxford University Press.
45. Matiz, A., Fabbro, F., Paschetto, A., Cantone, D., Paolone, A. R., & Crescentini, C. (2020). Positive Impact of Mindfulness Meditation on Mental Health of Female Teachers during the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18), 6450.
46. Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12(1), 23–44. Mayordomo, T., Viguer, P., Sales, A., Satorres, E., & Meléndez, J. C. (2016). Resilience and coping as predictors of well-being in adults. The Journal of Psychology, 150(7), 809-821. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1203276
47. McDermott, B. M., Cobham, V. E., Berry, H., & Stallman, H. M. (2010). Vulnerability factors for disaster-induced child post-traumatic stress disorder: The case for low family resilience and previous mental illness. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 384-389.
48. Nasser-Abu Alhija, F., & Wisenbaker, J. (2006). A Monte Carlo study investigating the impact of item parceling strategies on parameter estimates and their standard errors in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling, 13(2), 204-228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258228
49. Nath, P., & Pradhan, R. K. (2012). Influence of positive affect on physical health and psychological well-being: Examining the mediating role of psychological resilience. Journal of Health Management, 14(2), 161-174. https://doi.org/10.1177/097206341201400206
50. Noddings, N. (2005). Identifying and responding to needs in teacher education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 35(2), 147-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640500146757
51. Ozpolat, A. R., Isgor, I. Y., & Sezer, F. (2012). Investigating psychological well being of university students according to lifestyles. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 256-262.
52. Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Strengths of character and well-being: A closer look at hope and modesty. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23 (5), 628-634.
53. Peterson, C., Ruch, W., Beerman, U., Park, N. & Seligman, M. E. P. (2007). Strengths of character, orientation to happiness, and life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 149-156.
54. Pidgeon, A. & Keye, M. (2014). Relationship between resilience, mindfulness, and pyschological well-being in University students. International Journal of Liberal Arts and Social Science, 2(5), 27-32.
55. Prime, H., Wade, M., & Browne, D. T. (2020). Risk and Resilience in Family Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic. American Psychologist. Advance online publication. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000660
56. Rajkumar, R. P. (2020). COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 102066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102066
57. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
58. Rubin, G. J., & Wessely, S. (2020). The psychological effects of quarantining a city. Bmj, 368 (313), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m313
59. Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. The British journal of psychiatry, 147(6), 598-611.
60. Rustoen, T., Cooper, B. A., & Miaskowski, C. (2010). The importance of hope as a mediator of psychological distress and life satisfaction in a community sample of cancer patients. Cancer Nursing, 33(4), 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1097/NCC.0b013e3181d6fb61
61. Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology 52(1), 141-166.
62. Ryff, C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57(6), 1069-1089.
63. Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B. (2003). Flourishing under fire: Resilience as a prototype of challenged thriving. In C.L.M. Keyes & Haidt J. (Ed.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp.15-36). Washington, DC: APA.
64. Sagone, E., & De Caroli, M. E. (2014). A correlational study on dispositional resilience, psychological well-being, and coping strategies in university students. American Journal of Educational Research, 2, 463-471.
65. Satıcı, S. A. (2016). Psychological vulnerability, resilience, and subjective well-being: The mediating role of hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 68-73.
66. Scioli, A. (2007) Hope and spirituality in the age of anxiety. In R. J. Estes (Ed.), Advancing quality of life in a turbulent world. New York: Springer.
67. Seçer, İ., & Ulaş, S. (2020). An Investigation of the Effect of COVID-19 on OCD in Youth in the Context of Emotional Reactivity, Experiential Avoidance, Depression and Anxiety. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-14.
68. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: Free Press.
69. Seligman, M. E. P & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. Sharma, S. & Chopra, R. (2020). Life skills required for teachers during COVID-19 situation. Adalya Journal, 9(5), 406-410. https://doi.org/10.37896/aj9.5/046
70. Sim K & Chua H.C. (2004). The psychological impact of SARS: a matter of heart and mind. CMAJ; 170, 811-812. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1032003
71. Shigemura, J., Ursano, R. J., Morganstein, J. C., Kurosawa, M., & Benedek, D. M. (2020). Public responses to the novel 2019 coronavirus (2019‐nCoV) in Japan: Mental health consequences and target populations. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74(4), 281-282. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12988.
72. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. https://doi.org/10.1037//1082-989X.7.4.422
73. Shorey, H. S., Little, T. D., Snyder, C. R., Kluck, B., & Robitschek, C. (2007). Hope and personal growth initiative: A comparison of positive, future-oriented constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1917-1926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.011
74. Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Jennifer Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
75. Sood S. (2020). Psychological effects of the Coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic. RHiME. 7, 23-26.
76. Souri, H., & Hasanirad, T. (2011). Relationship between resilience, optimism and psychological well-being in students of medicine. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 1541-1544.
77. Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249–275. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1304_01
78. Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., & Harney, P. (1991). The will and ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570- 585.
79. Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Pearson.
80. Talidong, K. J. B., & Toquero, C. M. D. (2020). Philippine teachers’ practices to deal with anxiety amid COVID-19. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 25:6-7, 573-579. : https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2020.1759225
81. Tarhan, S., & Bacanlı, H. (2015). Sürekli umut ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 3(1), 1-14.
82. Telef, B. B. (2013). Psikolojik iyi oluş ölçeği: Türkçeye uyarlama, geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(3), 374-384.
83. Toner, E., Haslam, N., Robinson, J., & Williams, P. (2012). Character strengths and wellbeing in adolescence: Structure and correlates of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths for Children. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(5), 637-642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.014
84. Vacek, K. R., Coyle, L. D., & Vera, E. M. (2010). Stress, self-esteem, hope, optimism, and well-being in urban, ethnic minority adolescents. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 38(2), 99–111.
85. VanderWeele, T. J., Chen, Y., Long, K., Kim, E, S. Trudel-Fitzgerald, C., Kubzansky, L. D. (2020). Positive epidemiology?, Epidemiology, 31(2), 189-193. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001147
86. Vetter, M. H., Vetter, M. K., & Fowler, J. (2018). Resilience, hope and flourishing are inversely associated with burnout among members of the Society for Gynecologic Oncology. Gynecologic Oncology Reports, 25, 52-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gore.2018.06.002
87. Wang, D., Hu, B., Hu, C., Zhu, F., Liu, X., Zhang, J., ... & Zhao, Y. (2020). Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Jama, 323(11), 1061-1069.
88. Waterman, A.S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64(4), 678-691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
89. Wright, M. O. D., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2013). Resilience processes in development: Four waves of research on positive adaptation in the context of adversity. In Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 15-37). Springer, Boston, MA.
90. Wu, P., Fang, Y., Guan, Z., Fan, B., Kong, J., Yao, Z., ... & Hoven, C. W. (2009). The psychological impact of the SARS epidemic on hospital employees in China: exposure, risk perception, and altruistic acceptance of risk. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54(5), 302-311.
91. Yağmur, T. ve Türkmen, S. N. (2017). Ruh hastalığı olan hastalara bakım veren aile üyelerinde algılanan stres ve psikolojik dayanıklılık. Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 4(1), 542-548.
92. Yeung, D. Y., Ho, S. M., & Mak, C. W. (2015). Brief report: Attention to positive information mediates the relationship between hope and psychosocial well-being of adolescents. Journal of Adolescents, 42, 98-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.04.004
93. Zhou, X., Snoswell, C. L., Harding, L. E., Bambling, M., Edirippulige, S., Bai, X., & Smith, A. C. (2020). The role of telehealth in reducing the mental health burden from COVID-19. Telemedicine and e-Health, 26(4), 377-379. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2020.0068
94. Zhou, X. & Yao, B. (2020) Social support and acute stress symptoms (ASSs) during the COVID-19 outbreak: deciphering the roles of psychological needs and sense of control, European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11:1, 1779494, https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1779494