Appraising Water Quality, Health Risk and Correlation of Water Quality Parameters of Kiri Dam Reservoir – Shelleng LGA

Abstract

Surface water bodies have been identified as potential pathways to water-borne diseases primarily due to their susceptibility to contamination. In addition, rural communities in many developing countries utilise surface water as part or sole means of water supply due to its ease and proximity. This study assesses reservoir water quality and the health risk impact of Kiri dam. Water samples were collected and analysed from 52 sampling points along the reservoir. The results showed that colour (23.2 mg/L), turbidity (19.3 5mg/L), nitrate (124.40 mg/L), lead (0.11 mg/L), potassium (1.61 mg/L), phosphorus (0.07 mg/L), coliform count (13.86cfu m/L), and E. coli (6.47cfu m/L) were significantly above stipulated standards. In addition, human health risks showed severe risks for adults, children and infants, with nitrate constituting over 70% of non-carcinogenic health risks. Correlation indicates pH strongly correlates with nitrate, potassium, phosphate, calcium, lead, iron, coliform count, and E. coli. In addition, a strong positive correlation was also observed between turbidity-colour, turbidity-coliform count, and turbidity-E. Coli. The outcome suggests poor water quality, resulting in severe health concerns, particularly for children and infants. Surface water monitoring is therefore recommended, particularly within areas that solely depend on unprotected water sources for drinking.

Keywords

• Health risk
• Water quality
• Correlation
• Kiri dam

References

1. Adimalla, N. and Li, P. (2019) 'Occurrence, health risks, and geochemical mechanisms of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of the rock-dominant semi-arid region, Telangana State, India', Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 25(1-2), pp. 81-103. doi: 10.1080/10807039.2018.1480353.
2. Ahada, C.P.S. and Suthar, S. (2019) 'Assessment of Human Health Risk Associated with High Groundwater Fluoride Intake in Southern Districts of Punjab, India', Exposure and Health, 11(4), pp. 267-275. doi: 10.1007/s12403-017-0268-4.
3. Aher, K.R., Salve, P.L. and Gaikwad, S.G. (2020) 'Assessing nitrate and fluoride contamination in drinking water and their health risk assessment in drought-prone area of gv-35 watershed of Aurangabad district, central India', Journal of applied geochemists, 22(2), pp. 232-250.
4. Aladejana, J.A., Kalin, R.M., Sentenac, P., Hassan, I. (2020). Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Quality of the Shallow Coastal Aquifer of Eastern Dahomey Basin, Southwestern Nigeria. Water 12(1), pp.224. doi: 10.3390/w12010224.
5. Almuktar, S., Hamdan, A.N.A., Scholz, M. (2020). Assessment of Effluent of Basra City Main Water Treatment Plant for Drinking and Irrigation Purposes. Water 12 (1), pp.3334. doi 10.3390/w12123334
6. American Public Health Association. (1998). Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater., 1998.Laboratory manual. US: APHA.
7. Amfo-Otu, R., Agyenim, T.B., Nimba-Bumah, G.B. (2014). Correlation Analysis of Groundwater Colouration from Mountainous Areas, Ghana. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 67(1), pp.16-24. doi: 10.5755/j01.erem.67.1.4545
8. Amos, J.T., Ali, J., Agbo, O.J., Dawuda, B.M., Stephen, F.T. (2019). A study on the Environmental Impact of Fishers Activities in Kiri Dam, Shelleng Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. Direct Research Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 7(2), pp.23-29. doi: 10.26765/DRJAFS.2019.3806.

9. Awomeso, J.A., Ahmad, S.M., Taiwo, A.M. (2020). Multivariate assessment of groundwater quality in the basement rocks of Osun State, Southwest, Nigeria. Environmental Earth Sciences, 79(5), pp.108. doi: 10.1007/s12665-020-8858-z.
10. Ayandiran, T.A., Fawole, O.O., Dahunsi, S.O. (2018). Water quality assessment of bitumen polluted Oluwa River, Southwestern Nigeria. Water Resources and Industry. 19(2018), pp.13-24. doi: 10.1016/j.wri.2017.12.002.
11. Barzegar, R., Asghari Moghaddam, A., Soltani, S., Fijani, E., Tziritis, E. and Kazemian, N. (2019) 'Heavy Metal(loid)s in the Groundwater of Shabestar Area (NW Iran): Source Identification and Health Risk Assessment', Exposure and Health, 11(4), pp. 251-265. doi: 10.1007/s12403-017-0267-5.
12. Brown, M.J., Margolis, S. (2012). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 23(1), pp.89-90. doi: 10.1016/j.wem.2011.11.005.
13. Chaurasia. S., Gupta. A. D. (2014). Handbook of Water, Air and Soil Analysis., 2014. A Lab Manual. India: International E-Publication.
14. Chen, J., Wu, H., Qian, H. and Gao, Y. (2017) 'Assessing Nitrate and Fluoride Contaminants in Drinking Water and Their Health Risk of Rural Residents Living in a Semiarid Region of Northwest China', Exposure and Health, 9(3), pp. 183-195. doi: 10.1007/s1203-016-0231-9.
15. Chica-Olmo, M., Peluso, F., Luque-Espinar, J., Rodriguez-Galiano, V., Pardo-Igúzquiza, E. and Chica-Rivas, L. (2017) 'A methodology for assessing public health risk associated with groundwater nitrate contamination: a case study in an agricultural setting (southern Spain)', Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 39(5), pp. 1117-1132. doi: 10.1007/s10653-016-9880-7.
16. Chigor, V.N., Umoh, V.J., Okuofu, C.A., Ameh, J.B., Igbinosa, E.O., Okoh, A.I. (2012). Water quality assessment: surface water sources used for drinking and irrigation in Zaria, Nigeria, is a public health hazard. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 184(5), pp.3389-3400. doi: 10.1007/s10661-011-2396-9.
17. Duggal, V., Rani, A., Mehra, R. and Balaram, V. (2017) 'Risk assessment of metals from groundwater in northeast Rajasthan', Journal of the Geological Society of India, 90(1), pp. 77-84. doi: 10.1007/s12594-017-0666-z.
18. Gadiga, B.L., Garandi, I.D. (2018). The Spacio-Temporal Changes of Kiri Dam and its Implications in Adamawa State, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 8(8), pp.469-477. doi: 10.29322/IJSRP.8.8. 2018.p8058.
19. Golaki, M., Azhdarpoor, A., Mohamadpour, A., Derakhshan, Z. and Conti, G.O. (2022) 'Health risk assessment and spatial distribution of nitrate, nitrite, fluoride, and coliform contaminants in drinking water resources of kazerun, Iran', Environmental Research, 203(2022), pp. 111850. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111850.
20. Hameed, A., Nazir, S., Rehman, J.U., Ahmad, N., Hussain, A., Alam, I., Nazir, A. and Tahir, M.B. (2021) 'Assessment of health hazards related to contaminations of fluorides, nitrates, and nitrites in drinking water of Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan', Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 27(6), pp. 1509-1522. doi: 10.1080/10807039.2020.1858021.
21. Idoko, M., Oklo, A., (2012). Seasonal Variation in Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Rural Groundwater of Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Asian Scientific Research. 2(10), pp.574.
22. Ighalo, J.O., Adeniyi, A.G. (2020). A comprehensive review of water quality monitoring and assessment in Nigeria. Chemosphere 260(2020), pp.127569. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127569.
23. Jaji, M.O., Bamgbose, O., Odukoya, O.O., Arowolo, T.A., (2007). Water quality assessment of Ogun River, Southwest Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 133(1), pp.473-482. doi: 10.1007/s10661-006-9602-1.
24. Joshua, W.K., (2021). Assessing Rural Water Quality: comparing improved and unimproved drinking water sources in Hawul LGA. SNRU Journal of Science and Technology. 13(2), pp.55-62.
25. Joshua, W.K., (2020). The Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Water-Health-
26. Food-Economy Nexus and Sustainable Development in
27. Developing Countries. European Journal of Engineering Research and Science. 5(11), pp.1383-1388. doi: 10.24018/ejers.2020.5.11.2228.
28. Joshua, W.K., (2015). Groundwater quality assessment: a case study of groundwater from hand-dug wells in Hawul Local Government Area of Borno State. International Journal of Advance Research. 3(2), pp.537-546.
29. Kelly, E.R., Cronk, R., Kumpel, E., Howard, G., & Bartram, J. (2020). How we assess water safety: A critical review of sanitary inspection and water quality analysis. The Science of the Total Environment 718(2020), pp.137237. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137237.
30. Kolawole, O.M., Ajayi, K.T., Olayemi, A.B., Okoh, A.I. (2011). Assessment of water quality in Asa River (Nigeria) and its indigenous Clarias gariepinus fish. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8(11), pp.4332-4352. doi: 10.3390/ijerph8114332.
31. Kumar, R., Sharma, V., & Sharma, R.C. (2018). Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Water
32. Quality of Asan Wetland of Garhwal Himalaya, India. International Journal of Ecological Science and Environmental Engineering. 5(3), pp.64-70.
33. Kusa, R., & Joshua, W.K. (2022). Evaluating the potability and human health risk of sachet water in Wukari, Nigeria. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health. 15(7), pp.1-9. doi: 10.1080/19338244.2022.2063785.
34. Milam, C., Maina, H.M., Onyia, L.U., Ozoemena, P.E. (2012). Heavy metal pollution in benthic fishes from Kiri Dam in Guyuk local government area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 11(54), pp.11755-11759. doi: 10.5897/AJB11.1034.
35. Mohammadi, A.A., Zarei, A., Majidi, S., Ghaderpoury, A., Hashempour, Y., Saghi, M.H., Alinejad, A., Yousefi, M., Hosseingholizadeh, N. and Ghaderpoori, M. (2019) 'Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Khorramabad, Iran', Methods X, 6(2019), pp. 1642-1651. doi: 10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017.
36. Mortada, W.I., Shokeir, A.A. (2018). Does nitrite and nitrate levels in drinking water impact the health of people in Dakahlia governorate, Egypt? Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25(20), pp.19728-19738. doi: 10.1007/s11356-018-2156-2.
37. Narsimha, A. and Rajitha, S. (2018) 'Spatial distribution and seasonal variation in fluoride enrichment in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in Telangana State, South India', Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 24(8), pp. 2119-2132. doi: 10.1080/10807039.2018.1438176.
38. Nigerian Industrial Standards. (2007). Nigerian Standards for Drinking Water Quality. ICS 13.060.20. Abuja, Nigeria: Standard Organisation of Nigeria. Available from: https://health.gov.ng/doc/StandardWaterQuality.pdf. (accessed 12th June 2022)
39. Oboh, I.P., Agbala, C.S. (2017). Water quality assessment of the Siluko River, southern Nigeria. African Journal of Aquatic Science. 42(3), pp.279-286. doi: 10.2989/16085914.2017.1371579.
40. Ogunbode. T.O., Akintunde. E.A., Akinola O.T. (2017). An assessment of seasonal variations in physico-chemical characteristics of underground water in a growing tropical city in Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management. 10(3), pp.378. doi: 10.4314/ejesm.v10i3.8.
41. Olufemi. A.G., Utieyin. O.O., Adebayo. O.M, (2010). Assessment of groundwater quality and saline intrusions in coastal aquifers of Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. Journal of Water Resource and Protection. 2(2010), pp.849-853. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2010.210100.
42. Pacheco, F.A.L., Sanches Fernandes, L.F. (2016). Environmental land use conflicts in catchments: A major cause of amplified nitrate in river water. The Science of the Total Environment, 548-549(2016), pp.173-188. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.155.
43. Pelfrêne, A., Douay, F., Richard, A., Roussel, H. (2013). Assessment of potential health risks for inhabitants living near a former lead smelter. Part 2: site-specific human health risk assessment of Cd and Pb contamination in kitchen gardens. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 185(4), pp.2999-3012. doi: 10.1007/s10661-012-2767-x.
44. Radojevic, M. & Bashkin, V.N., (2006). Practical environmental analysis. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry.
45. Shalleng, B.A. & Daniel, J.D., (2017). Assessment of Kiri Dam Impacts on the Living Standard of People in Shelleng Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Technology. 1(1), pp.1-15.
46. Soro, A.M. (2016). Public Health Implications of Water Quality of Kiri Reservoir, Adamawa State, Northeastern Nigeria. Bachelors Thesis. The American University of Nigeria.
47. Tenebe, I.T., Emenike, P.C., Nnaji, C.C., Babatunde, E.O., Ogarekpe, N.M., Dede-Bamfo, N., Omole, D.O. (2020). Bacterial characterisation and quantification of rainwater harvested in a rural community in Nigeria. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management. 14(2020), pp.100370. doi: 10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100370
48. Tukur, A.L., Mubi, A.M., (2002). Impact of Kiri dam on the lower reaches of river Gongola, Nigeria. Geo Journal, 56(2002), pp.93-96.
49. USEPA (2014) Human Health Evaluation Manual, Supplemental Guidance: Update of Standard Default Exposure Factors, OSWER Directive 9200.1-120. Washington, DC: USEPA.
50. USEPA (1991) Risk Assessment Guideline for Superfund, Vol1: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part B, Development of Risk-Based Preliminary Remediation Goals). EPA - 9585.7-01B. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response Washington, DC: USEPA.
51. Usikalu, M.R., Ayara, W., Ayanbisi, O., Fola-Emmanuel, A., Okechukwu, C., (2021). Assessment of Quality of Drinking Water from Ogun State, Nigeria. IOP Conference Series, Earth and Environmental Science. 665(1), pp.12033. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/665/1/012033.
52. Wang, J., 2(018). Statistical study on distribution of multiple dissolved elements and a water quality assessment around a simulated stackable fly ash. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 159(2018), pp.46-55. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.057.
53. World Bank., (2017). A Wake-Up Call: Nigeria Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Diagnostic- WASH Poverty Diagnostic. Washington, DC: World Bank.
54. Yunana, D.A., Shittu, A.A., Ayuba, S., Bassah, E.J., Joshua, W.K., (2017). Climate Change and Lake Water Resources in Sub-Saharan Africa: Case Study of Lake Chad and Lake Victoria. Nigerian Journal of Technology. 36(2), pp.648-654. doi: 10.4314/njt.v36i2.42.
55. Zemba, A.A., Adebayo, A.A. & Ba, A.M., (2016). Analysis of Environmental and Economic Effects of Kiri Dam, Adamawa State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Human-Social Science. 16(1), pp.1-7.