Antibacterial and antioxidant properties and phytochemical screening of Laurus nobilis L. extract from Ethiopia
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 11 Sayı: 3, 494 - 506
Rebecca Beyene
Teshome Biru
Aman Dekebo
Öz
Microbial resistance to antibiotics and the shortage of efficient antimicrobial agent has necessitated the search for a better antimicrobial agent from various sources. Plants secondary metabolites are the major sources for discovery of new bioactive chemical compounds. The objective of this study was to determine the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Laurus nobilis leaf extract and its essential oil against human pathogenic microorganisms and to analyse its chemical composition. The leaf of L. nobilis (500 g) was air-dried, powdered and extracted using four different solvents. The crude extract and the essential oil were tested against four Gram-negative and two Gram-positive bacterial strains. The radical scavenging activity of the crud extract was examined using DPPH assay. Bacterial inhibition activity of the crude extract increased with increased concentration from 25 mg/mL to 200 mg/mL. The maximum inhibition zone was recorded against Enterococcus faecalis 13.33±1.52 mm, Escherichia coli 14.33±1.53 mm and Salmonella typhimurium 16.00±1.00 mm, respectively. MeOH extract (1000 µg/mL) showed superior radical scavenging property (0.02) than ascorbic acid (0.05). The analysis of the oil using GC-MS indicated the presence of 48 chemical substances accounting for 91.4 % of the total compositions. The finding of this study showed that bay leaf has considerable antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Further evaluation of this plant is recommended with particular focus on the mechanisms of action of the antimicrobial substance.
Kaynakça
- Algabri, S.O., Doro, B.M., Abadi, A.M., Shiba, M.A., & Salem, A.H. (2018). Bay Leaves have Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities. J Pathogen Res, 1(1), 3.
- Andrews, J.M. (2002). Determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 49(6), 1049–1049. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkf083
- Archana, D., Dixitha, M., & Santhy, K.S. (2015). Antioxidant and anti clastogenic potential of Piper longum L. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics, 7(2), 11–14.
- Baser, K.H.C., & Buchbauer, G. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of Essential Oils. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b19393
- Batool, S., Khera, R.A., Hanif, M.A., & Ayub, M.A. (2019). Bay Leaf. Medicinal Plants of South Asia: Novel Sources for Drug Discovery, January, 63 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00005-7
- Bounatirou, S., Smiti, S., Miguel, M.G., Faleiro, L., Rejeb, M.N., Neffati, M., Costa, M.M., Figueiredo, A.C., Barroso, J.G., & Pedro, L.G. (2007). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the essential oils isolated from Tunisian Thymus capitatus Hoff. et Link. Food Chemistry, 105(1), 146 155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.03.059
- Caputo, L., Nazzaro, F., Souza, L.F., Aliberti, L., De Martino, L., Fratianni, F., Coppola, R., & De Feo, V. (2017). Laurus nobilis: Composition of essential oil and its biological activities. In Molecules (Vol. 22, Issue 6). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22060930
- Carocho, M., & Ferreira, I. (2013). The Role of Phenolic Compounds in the Fight against Cancer – A Review. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 13(8), 1236–1258. https://doi.org/10.2174/18715206113139990301
- Celikel, N., & Kavas, G. (2008). Antimicrobial properties of some essential oils against some pathogenic microorganisms. Czech Journal of Food Sciences, 26(3), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.17221/1603-cjfs
- Cherrat, L., Espina, L., Bakkali, M., García-Gonzalo, D., Pagán, R., & Laglaoui, A. (2014). Chemical composition and antioxidant properties of Laurus nobilis L. and Myrtus communis L. essential oils from Morocco and evaluation of their antimicrobial activity acting alone or in combined processes for food preservation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 94(6), 1197–1204. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6397
- Conforti, F., Statti, G., Uzunov, D., & Menichini, F. (2016). Comparative Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Wild and Cultivated Laurus nobilis L. Leaves and Foeniculum vulgare subsp. In Piperitum (Ucria) Coutinho Seeds (pp. 2056–2064). Leaves and Foeniculum vulgare Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin.
- Delcour, A.H. (2009). Outer membrane permeability and antibiotic resistance. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1794(5), 808–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.11.005
- Dewijanti, I.D., Mangunwardoyo, W., Artanti, N., & Hanafi, M. (2019). Bioactivities of Salam leaf (Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp). AIP Conference Proceedings, 2168(November). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5132499
- Di Leo Lira, P., Retta, D., Tkacik, E., Ringuelet, J., Coussio, J.D., van Baren, C., & Bandoni, A.L. (2009). Essential oil and by-products of distillation of bay leaves (Laurus nobilis L.) from Argentina. Industrial Crops and Products, 30(2), 259 264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.04.005
- Elmastaş, M., Gülçin, I., Işildak, Ö., Küfrevioǧlu, Ö.I., Ibaoǧlu, K., & Aboul-Enein, H.Y. (2006). Radical scavenging activity and antioxidant capacity of bay leaf extracts. Journal of the Iranian Chemical Society, 3(3), 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03247217
- Fang, F., Sang, S., Chen, K.Y., Gosslau, A., Ho, C.T., & Rosen, R.T. (2005). Isolation and identification of cytotoxic compounds from Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis). Food Chemistry, 93(3), 497–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.10.029
- Fidan, H., Stefanova, G., Kostova, I., Stankov, S., Damyanova, S., Stoyanova, A., & Zheljazkov, V. D. (2019). Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Laurus nobilis L. Essential oils from Bulgaria. Molecules, 24(4), 1 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24040804
- Fukuyama, N., Ino, C., Suzuki, Y., Kobayashi, N., Hamamoto, H., Sekimizu, K., & Orihara, Y. (2011). Antimicrobial sesquiterpenoids from Laurus nobilis L. Natural Product Research, 25(14), 1295–1303. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.502532
- Hanuš, L.O., Rosenthal, D., Řezanka, T., Dembitsky, V.M., & Moussaief, A. (2008). Fast and easy GC/MS identification of myrrh resins. Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, 42(12), 719–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11094-009-0209-z
- Ibrahim, M., Abdelkrim, A., Asmae, E.G., Noureddine, H., Badiaa, L., & Elhoussine, D. (2020). Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Antifungal Effects of Essential Oil from Laurus nobilis L. Flowers Growing in Morocco, 20.
- Jahangirian, H., Haron, J., Shah, M., & Al, E. (2013). Well Diffusion Method for Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures, 8(3), 1263–1270.
- Kaurinovic, B., Popovic, M., & Vlaisavljevic, S. (2010). In vitro and in vivo effects of Laurus nobilis L. leaf extracts. Molecules, 15(5), 3378 3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules15053378
- Khalil, E., Elkhair, A., & Mohsen, U.A. (2010). Antibacterial Activity and Phytochemical Analysis of Some Medicinal Plants from Gaza Strip-Palestine Post treatment of secondary wastewater effluent using algae View project Waste treatment View project. January.
- Larissa da Silva, I., Karuppusamy, A., Fabio, M., Ivana Maria Povoa, V., Isanete Geraldini Costa, B., Sikiru Olaitan, B., & Domingos Tabajara de Oliveira, M. (2017). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of selected plants used by populations from Juruena Valley , Legal Amazon , Brazil. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9(5), 179–191.
- Mediouni Ben Jemâa, J., Tersim, N., Toudert, K.T., & Khouja, M.L. (2012). Insecticidal activities of essential oils from leaves of Laurus nobilis L. from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, and comparative chemical composition. Journal of Stored Products Research, 48, 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2011.10.003
- Mursyida, E., Almira, R., Widiasari, S., & Misfa, O. (2021). Antibacterial Activity of Bay Leaf (Syzygium polyanthum) Ethanol Extract on Escherichia coli Growth. Photon: Jurnal Sain Dan Kesehatan, 12(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.37859/jp.v12i1.3142
- Nabila, B., Piras, A., Fouzia, B., Falconieri, D., Kheira, G., Fedoul, F.F., & Majda, S.R. (2022). Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil of Laurus nobilis leaves. Natural Product Research, 36(4), 989 993. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1839450
- Onuminya, T., Shodiya, O., & Olubiy, O. (2017). Comparative proximate and phytochemical analyses of leafy vegetables in lagos state. Nigerian Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 30(3), 3097–3103.
- Özcan, M., & Chalchat, J.-C. (2005). Effect of Different Locations on the Chemical Composition of Essential Oils of Laurel ( Laurus nobilis L.) Leaves Growing Wild in Turkey. Journal of Medicinal Food, 8(3), 408–411. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.8.408
- Parthasarathy, V.A., Chempakam, B., & Zachariah, T.J. (2008). Chemistry of spices. In Chemistry of Spices. https://doi.org/10.4327/jsnfs1949.32.267
- Radojevic, I.D., Stankovic, M.S., Stefanovic, O.D., Topuzovic, M.D., Comic, L.R., & Ostojic, A.M. (2012). Great horsetail (Equisetum telmateia Ehrh.): Active substances content and biological effects. EXCLI Journal, 11, 59–67.
- Rameshkumar, K.B., George, V., & Shiburaj, S. (2007). Chemical Constituents and Antibacterial Activity of the Leaf Oil of Cinnamomum chemungianum Mohan et Henry. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 19(1), 98 100. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2007.9699238
- Renuka, K., Devi, V.R., & Subramanian, S.P. (2018). Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of in Vitro Antioxidant Potential of Immature Palmyra Palm (Borassus Flabellifer Linn.) Fruits. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 10(8), 77. https://doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2018v10i8.27162
- Saeed, S., & Tariq, P. (2007). Antimicrobial activities of Emblica officinalis and Coriandrum sativum against gram positive bacteria and Candida albicans. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 39(3), 913–917.
- Sahoo, S. (2012). Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf extract of Alpinia malaccensis. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 6(23), 4032 4038. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr12.374
- Sangun, M.K., Aydin, E., Timur, M., Karadeniz, H., Caliskan, M., & Ozkan, A. (2007). Comparison of chemical composition of the essential oil of Laurus nobilis L. leaves and fruits from different regions of Hatay, Turkey. Journal of Environmental Biology, 28(4), 731–733.
- Santoyo, S., Lloría, R., Jaime, L., Ibañez, E., Señoráns, F.J., & Reglero, G. (2006). Supercritical fluid extraction of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds from Laurus nobilis L. Chemical and functional characterization. European Food Research and Technology, 222(5–6), 565–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-005-0027-9
- Sellami, I.H., Wannes, W.A., Bettaieb, I., Berrima, S., Chahed, T., Marzouk, B., & Limam, F. (2011). Qualitative and quantitative changes in the essential oil of Laurus nobilis L. leaves as affected by different drying methods. Food Chemistry, 126(2), 691–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.022
- Sharmeen, J.B., Mahomoodally, F.M., Zengin, G., & Maggi, F. (2021). Essential oils as natural sources of fragrance compounds for cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Molecules, 26(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030666
- Siriken, B., Yavuz, C., & Guler, A. (2018). Antibacterial Activity of Laurus nobilis: A review of literature. Medical Science and Discovery, 90(438), 374 379. https://doi.org/10.17546/msd.482929
- Sıdıka, E., Oktay, Y., Hatice, E.T., Aslı, A., & Merve, A.U. (2013). Chemical composition, antimicrobial activity and antioxidant capacity of some medicinal and aromatic plant extracts. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 7(5), 383 388. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.1765
- Snuossi, M., Trabelsi, N., Taleb, S. Ben, Dehmeni, A., Flamini, G., & De Feo, V. (2016). Laurus nobilis, Zingiber officinale and Anethum graveolens essential oils: Composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities against bacteria isolated from fish and shellfish. Molecules, 21(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21101414
- Subba, B., Seling, T.R., Kandel, R.C., & Phuyal, G.P. (2017). Assessment of antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Amomum subulatum Roxb. of Nepal. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 10(4), 95 97. https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2017.v10i4.16018
- Taroq, A., El Kamari, F., Aouam, I., El Atki, Y., Lyoussi, B., & Abdellaoui, A. (2018). Antioxidant activities and total phenolic and flavonoid content variations of leaf extracts of laurus nobilis l. From morocco. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 11(12), 540–543. https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i12.29747
- Yalçın, H., Anık, M., Şanda, M.A., & Çakır, A. (2007). Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Laurus nobilis Essential Oil Composition of Northern Cyprus. Journal of Medicinal Food, 10(4), 715–719. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2007.404
- Zuraida, Z. (2018). Analisis Toksisitas Beberapa Tumbuhan Hutan Dengan Metode Brine Shrimp Lethality Test (Bslt). Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 36(3), 239–246. https://doi.org/10.20886/jphh.2018.36.3.239-246
Antibacterial and antioxidant properties and phytochemical screening of Laurus nobilis L. extract from Ethiopia
Yıl 2024,
Cilt: 11 Sayı: 3, 494 - 506
Rebecca Beyene
Teshome Biru
Aman Dekebo
Öz
Microbial resistance to antibiotics and the shortage of efficient antimicrobial agent has necessitated the search for a better antimicrobial agent from various sources. Plants secondary metabolites are the major sources for discovery of new bioactive chemical compounds. The objective of this study was to determine the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Laurus nobilis leaf extract and its essential oil against human pathogenic microorganisms and to analyse its chemical composition. The leaf of L. nobilis (500 g) was air-dried, powdered and extracted using four different solvents. The crude extract and the essential oil were tested against four Gram-negative and two Gram-positive bacterial strains. The radical scavenging activity of the crud extract was examined using DPPH assay. Bacterial inhibition activity of the crude extract increased with increased concentration from 25 mg/mL to 200 mg/mL. The maximum inhibition zone was recorded against Enterococcus faecalis 13.33±1.52 mm, Escherichia coli 14.33±1.53 mm and Salmonella typhimurium 16.00±1.00 mm, respectively. MeOH extract (1000 µg/mL) showed superior radical scavenging property (0.02) than ascorbic acid (0.05). The analysis of the oil using GC-MS indicated the presence of 48 chemical substances accounting for 91.4 % of the total compositions. The finding of this study showed that bay leaf has considerable antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Further evaluation of this plant is recommended with particular focus on the mechanisms of action of the antimicrobial substance.
Kaynakça
- Algabri, S.O., Doro, B.M., Abadi, A.M., Shiba, M.A., & Salem, A.H. (2018). Bay Leaves have Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities. J Pathogen Res, 1(1), 3.
- Andrews, J.M. (2002). Determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 49(6), 1049–1049. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkf083
- Archana, D., Dixitha, M., & Santhy, K.S. (2015). Antioxidant and anti clastogenic potential of Piper longum L. International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics, 7(2), 11–14.
- Baser, K.H.C., & Buchbauer, G. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of Essential Oils. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b19393
- Batool, S., Khera, R.A., Hanif, M.A., & Ayub, M.A. (2019). Bay Leaf. Medicinal Plants of South Asia: Novel Sources for Drug Discovery, January, 63 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00005-7
- Bounatirou, S., Smiti, S., Miguel, M.G., Faleiro, L., Rejeb, M.N., Neffati, M., Costa, M.M., Figueiredo, A.C., Barroso, J.G., & Pedro, L.G. (2007). Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the essential oils isolated from Tunisian Thymus capitatus Hoff. et Link. Food Chemistry, 105(1), 146 155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.03.059
- Caputo, L., Nazzaro, F., Souza, L.F., Aliberti, L., De Martino, L., Fratianni, F., Coppola, R., & De Feo, V. (2017). Laurus nobilis: Composition of essential oil and its biological activities. In Molecules (Vol. 22, Issue 6). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22060930
- Carocho, M., & Ferreira, I. (2013). The Role of Phenolic Compounds in the Fight against Cancer – A Review. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 13(8), 1236–1258. https://doi.org/10.2174/18715206113139990301
- Celikel, N., & Kavas, G. (2008). Antimicrobial properties of some essential oils against some pathogenic microorganisms. Czech Journal of Food Sciences, 26(3), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.17221/1603-cjfs
- Cherrat, L., Espina, L., Bakkali, M., García-Gonzalo, D., Pagán, R., & Laglaoui, A. (2014). Chemical composition and antioxidant properties of Laurus nobilis L. and Myrtus communis L. essential oils from Morocco and evaluation of their antimicrobial activity acting alone or in combined processes for food preservation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 94(6), 1197–1204. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6397
- Conforti, F., Statti, G., Uzunov, D., & Menichini, F. (2016). Comparative Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activities of Wild and Cultivated Laurus nobilis L. Leaves and Foeniculum vulgare subsp. In Piperitum (Ucria) Coutinho Seeds (pp. 2056–2064). Leaves and Foeniculum vulgare Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin.
- Delcour, A.H. (2009). Outer membrane permeability and antibiotic resistance. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1794(5), 808–816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.11.005
- Dewijanti, I.D., Mangunwardoyo, W., Artanti, N., & Hanafi, M. (2019). Bioactivities of Salam leaf (Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp). AIP Conference Proceedings, 2168(November). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5132499
- Di Leo Lira, P., Retta, D., Tkacik, E., Ringuelet, J., Coussio, J.D., van Baren, C., & Bandoni, A.L. (2009). Essential oil and by-products of distillation of bay leaves (Laurus nobilis L.) from Argentina. Industrial Crops and Products, 30(2), 259 264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.04.005
- Elmastaş, M., Gülçin, I., Işildak, Ö., Küfrevioǧlu, Ö.I., Ibaoǧlu, K., & Aboul-Enein, H.Y. (2006). Radical scavenging activity and antioxidant capacity of bay leaf extracts. Journal of the Iranian Chemical Society, 3(3), 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03247217
- Fang, F., Sang, S., Chen, K.Y., Gosslau, A., Ho, C.T., & Rosen, R.T. (2005). Isolation and identification of cytotoxic compounds from Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis). Food Chemistry, 93(3), 497–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.10.029
- Fidan, H., Stefanova, G., Kostova, I., Stankov, S., Damyanova, S., Stoyanova, A., & Zheljazkov, V. D. (2019). Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Laurus nobilis L. Essential oils from Bulgaria. Molecules, 24(4), 1 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24040804
- Fukuyama, N., Ino, C., Suzuki, Y., Kobayashi, N., Hamamoto, H., Sekimizu, K., & Orihara, Y. (2011). Antimicrobial sesquiterpenoids from Laurus nobilis L. Natural Product Research, 25(14), 1295–1303. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2010.502532
- Hanuš, L.O., Rosenthal, D., Řezanka, T., Dembitsky, V.M., & Moussaief, A. (2008). Fast and easy GC/MS identification of myrrh resins. Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, 42(12), 719–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11094-009-0209-z
- Ibrahim, M., Abdelkrim, A., Asmae, E.G., Noureddine, H., Badiaa, L., & Elhoussine, D. (2020). Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Antifungal Effects of Essential Oil from Laurus nobilis L. Flowers Growing in Morocco, 20.
- Jahangirian, H., Haron, J., Shah, M., & Al, E. (2013). Well Diffusion Method for Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures, 8(3), 1263–1270.
- Kaurinovic, B., Popovic, M., & Vlaisavljevic, S. (2010). In vitro and in vivo effects of Laurus nobilis L. leaf extracts. Molecules, 15(5), 3378 3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules15053378
- Khalil, E., Elkhair, A., & Mohsen, U.A. (2010). Antibacterial Activity and Phytochemical Analysis of Some Medicinal Plants from Gaza Strip-Palestine Post treatment of secondary wastewater effluent using algae View project Waste treatment View project. January.
- Larissa da Silva, I., Karuppusamy, A., Fabio, M., Ivana Maria Povoa, V., Isanete Geraldini Costa, B., Sikiru Olaitan, B., & Domingos Tabajara de Oliveira, M. (2017). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of selected plants used by populations from Juruena Valley , Legal Amazon , Brazil. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9(5), 179–191.
- Mediouni Ben Jemâa, J., Tersim, N., Toudert, K.T., & Khouja, M.L. (2012). Insecticidal activities of essential oils from leaves of Laurus nobilis L. from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, and comparative chemical composition. Journal of Stored Products Research, 48, 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2011.10.003
- Mursyida, E., Almira, R., Widiasari, S., & Misfa, O. (2021). Antibacterial Activity of Bay Leaf (Syzygium polyanthum) Ethanol Extract on Escherichia coli Growth. Photon: Jurnal Sain Dan Kesehatan, 12(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.37859/jp.v12i1.3142
- Nabila, B., Piras, A., Fouzia, B., Falconieri, D., Kheira, G., Fedoul, F.F., & Majda, S.R. (2022). Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil of Laurus nobilis leaves. Natural Product Research, 36(4), 989 993. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2020.1839450
- Onuminya, T., Shodiya, O., & Olubiy, O. (2017). Comparative proximate and phytochemical analyses of leafy vegetables in lagos state. Nigerian Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 30(3), 3097–3103.
- Özcan, M., & Chalchat, J.-C. (2005). Effect of Different Locations on the Chemical Composition of Essential Oils of Laurel ( Laurus nobilis L.) Leaves Growing Wild in Turkey. Journal of Medicinal Food, 8(3), 408–411. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2005.8.408
- Parthasarathy, V.A., Chempakam, B., & Zachariah, T.J. (2008). Chemistry of spices. In Chemistry of Spices. https://doi.org/10.4327/jsnfs1949.32.267
- Radojevic, I.D., Stankovic, M.S., Stefanovic, O.D., Topuzovic, M.D., Comic, L.R., & Ostojic, A.M. (2012). Great horsetail (Equisetum telmateia Ehrh.): Active substances content and biological effects. EXCLI Journal, 11, 59–67.
- Rameshkumar, K.B., George, V., & Shiburaj, S. (2007). Chemical Constituents and Antibacterial Activity of the Leaf Oil of Cinnamomum chemungianum Mohan et Henry. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 19(1), 98 100. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2007.9699238
- Renuka, K., Devi, V.R., & Subramanian, S.P. (2018). Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of in Vitro Antioxidant Potential of Immature Palmyra Palm (Borassus Flabellifer Linn.) Fruits. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 10(8), 77. https://doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2018v10i8.27162
- Saeed, S., & Tariq, P. (2007). Antimicrobial activities of Emblica officinalis and Coriandrum sativum against gram positive bacteria and Candida albicans. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 39(3), 913–917.
- Sahoo, S. (2012). Evaluation of in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf extract of Alpinia malaccensis. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 6(23), 4032 4038. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr12.374
- Sangun, M.K., Aydin, E., Timur, M., Karadeniz, H., Caliskan, M., & Ozkan, A. (2007). Comparison of chemical composition of the essential oil of Laurus nobilis L. leaves and fruits from different regions of Hatay, Turkey. Journal of Environmental Biology, 28(4), 731–733.
- Santoyo, S., Lloría, R., Jaime, L., Ibañez, E., Señoráns, F.J., & Reglero, G. (2006). Supercritical fluid extraction of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds from Laurus nobilis L. Chemical and functional characterization. European Food Research and Technology, 222(5–6), 565–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-005-0027-9
- Sellami, I.H., Wannes, W.A., Bettaieb, I., Berrima, S., Chahed, T., Marzouk, B., & Limam, F. (2011). Qualitative and quantitative changes in the essential oil of Laurus nobilis L. leaves as affected by different drying methods. Food Chemistry, 126(2), 691–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.022
- Sharmeen, J.B., Mahomoodally, F.M., Zengin, G., & Maggi, F. (2021). Essential oils as natural sources of fragrance compounds for cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. Molecules, 26(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26030666
- Siriken, B., Yavuz, C., & Guler, A. (2018). Antibacterial Activity of Laurus nobilis: A review of literature. Medical Science and Discovery, 90(438), 374 379. https://doi.org/10.17546/msd.482929
- Sıdıka, E., Oktay, Y., Hatice, E.T., Aslı, A., & Merve, A.U. (2013). Chemical composition, antimicrobial activity and antioxidant capacity of some medicinal and aromatic plant extracts. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 7(5), 383 388. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.1765
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