Refugee crisis (RC) after the Arab Spring (AS) and its impacts on Turkish tourism industry: The case of Istanbul
Yıl 2017,
Cilt: 3 Sayı: 1, 2 - 13, 15.06.2017
Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer
,
Eyüp Karayılan
,
Merve Aydoğan Çifçi
Öz
The Arab Spring began as social movements in Middle East and shortly after uprisings, regime changes and civil wars emerged. Apart from all, more than five million people are forced to refuge from Syria to neighbouring countries. The article is intended to explore the effects of the refugees on Turkish tourism industry with evidences from Istanbul. A semi-structured elite interviews have been used as the data collection method. Eight face to face interviews are conducted in Istanbul with scholars, professionals and specialists from different areas and study fields. Five common themes are derived from the collected data. These are illegal employment, tourism investment, tourism demand, social conflict and tourist experience. The case study makes important theoretical contribution to the tourism literature since it examines the impacts of refugee crisis with a different perspective of migration-led tourism.
Kaynakça
- Aiyar, S., Barkbu, B., Batini, N., Berger, H., Detragiache, E., Dizioli, A., Ebeke, C., Lin, H., Kaltani, L., Sosa, S., Spilimbergo, A. & Topalova, P. (2016). The Refugee Surge in Europe: Economic Challenges. IMF Staff Discussion Note. Washington DC: IMF
- Akturk, S. (2013). Russian-Turkish Relations in the 21st Century, 2000-2012. Russian Analytical Digest: Russia’s Relations with Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania, (125), 2-4.
- AlBattat, A. R., Som, A. P., Ghaderi, Z., & AbuKhalifeh, A. N. (2013). The effect of the Arab spring revolution on the Malaysian hospitality industry. International Business Research, 6(5), 92-99.
- Amin, M., Dhillon, N. S., Kharas, H., Assaad, R., Galal, A., Page, J., et al. (2012). After the spring: Economic Transitions in the Arab World. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Anderson, L. (2011). Demystifying the Arab spring. Foreign Affairs, 90(3), 2-7.
- Avraham, E. (2015). Destination image repair during crisis: Attracting tourism during the Arab Spring uprisings. Tourism Management, 47, 224-232.
- Balkan, B., & Tumen, S. (2016). Immigration and Prices: Quasi-Experimental Evidence from Syrian Refugees in Turkey. Ankara: Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey.
- Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (2002). Foundations of qualitative methods. Research Methods in Clinical Psychology: An Introduction for Students and Practitioners, Second Edition, Chichester, UK: John Wiley Press.
- Barriball, L. K., & While, A. (1994). Collecting Data using a semi‐structured interview: a discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19(2), 328-335.
- Benson, M., & O'reilly, K. (2009). Migration and the search for a better way of life: a critical exploration of lifestyle migration. The Sociological Review, 57(4), 608-625.
- Cetin, G. (2014). Sustaining Tourism Development Through City Tax: The case of Istanbul. E-review of Tourism Research, 11(1-2), 26-41.
- Cetin, G., & Bilgihan, A. (2016). Components of cultural tourists‟ experiences in destinations. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(2), 137-154.
- Cockburn, P. (2014). ISIS consolidates. London Review of Books, 36(16), 3-5.
- Dalacoura, K. (2012). The 2011 uprisings in the Arab Middle East: political change and geopolitical implications. International Affairs, 1(88), 63-79.
- Dede, A. Y. (2011). The Arab Uprisings: Debating the "Turkish Model". Insight Turkey, 13(2), 23-32.
- Dodge, T. (2012). From the "Arab Awakening" to the Arab Spring; the Post-colonial State in the Middle East. London School of Economics And Political Science.
- Doxey, G. V. (1975). A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants: Methodology and research inferences. Proceedings of the Travel Research Association Sixth Annual Conference, San Diego, CA. , Sept. 8-11, pp. 195-198.
- Fargues, P., & Fandrich, C. (2012). Migration after the Arab Spring. MPC Research Report 2012/09, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, San Domenico di Fiesole (FI): European University Institute.
- Fielding, D., & Shortland, A. (2011). How do tourists react to political violence? An empirical analysis of tourism in Egypt. Defence and Peace Economics, 22(2), 217-243.
- Gambhir, H. (2015). ISIS‟s Global Strategy: A Wargame. Institute for the Study of War.
- Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (2009). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
- Goodwin, J. (2011). Why We Were Surprised (Again) by the Arab Spring. Swiss Political Science Review, 4(17), 452-456.
- Gwadz, M. V., Gostnell, K., Smolenski, C., Willis, B., Nish, D., Nolan, T. C., et al. (2009). The initiation of homeless youth into the street economy. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 357-377.
- Harvey, W. S. (2011). Strategies for conducting elite interviews. Qualitative Research, 11(4), 431-441.
- Istanbul Culture and Tourism Office (2016), International visitors to Istanbul, Tourism Statistics, retrieved on 20 December 2016.
- Jackiewicz, E. L., & Craine, J. (2010). Destination Panama: An examination of the migration-tourism-foreign investment nexus. Recreation and Society in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 1(1), 5-29.
- Jenkins, B. M. (2015). The Implications of the Paris Terrorist Attack for American Strategy in Syria and Homeland Security. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation
- Joppe, M. (2012). Migrant workers: Challenges and opportunities in addressing tourism labour shortages. Tourism Management, 33(3), 662-671.
- Kamrava, M. (Ed.). (2014). Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the
- Middle East. UK: Hurst & Company Limited.
Kirisci, K. (2014). Syrian Refugees and Turkey‟s Challenges: Going Beyond
- Hospitality. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
- Lee, K., Mcguinness, C., & Kawakami, T. (2011). Research on occupational safety and health for migrant workers in five Asia and the Pacific countries: Australia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Bangkok: ILO Publications.
- Lotan, G., Graeff, E., Ananny, M., Gaffney, D., & Pearce, I. (2011). The Arab Spring| the revolutions were tweeted: Information flows during the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. International Journal of Communication, 5, 1375–1405
- MacFarquhar, N. (2015). A Most Dangerous Time. Vayau Aerospace and Defence Review,
(6), 8.
- Mathers, N., Fox, N., & Hunn, A. (1998). Trent focus for research and development in primary health care: Using interviews in a research project. Britain: NHS Executive Trent.
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2011). “Vision 2023: Turkey‟s Foreign Policy Objectives”.
- Retrieved from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/speech-entitled-_vision-2023_-turkey_s-foreign-policy-objectives__-delivered-by-h_e_-ahmet-davutoglu_-minister-of-foreign-af.en.mfa 12.04.2016
- Nagarajan, K. V. (2013). Egypt‟s political economy and the downfall of the Mubarak
- Regime. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(10), 22-39.
- Neumayer, E. (2004). The impact of political violence on tourism dynamic cross-national estimation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 259-281.
- Orhan, O., & Gundogar, S. S. (2015). Effects of the Syrian Refugees on Turkey. ORSAM
- Report, 195. Ankara: ORSAM and TESEV.
- Paniagua, A. (2002). Urban-rural migration, tourism entrepreneurs and rural restructuring in Spain. Tourism geographies, 4(4), 349-371.
- Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, inc.
- Pereira Valarini, P. F. (2015). Time to Restart: The experience of Syrian refugees in establishing a business in Istanbul. (Unpublished Master's Thesis), University of Utrecht, Sustainable Development- International Development Thesis Research, Utrecht, Nederlands.
- Petersen, W. (1958). A general typology of migration. American Sociological Review, 23(3), 256-266.
- Rabinovich, I. (2014). The End of Sykes-Picot? Reflections on the Prospects of the Arab State
- System. Saban Center at Brookings, Middle East Memo, February 32, 1-9.
- Rifai, R. (2011). Timeline: Tunisia‟s uprising. Al Jazeera Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/tunisia/2011/01/201114142223 827361.html 08.05.2017.
- Schraeder, P. J. (2012). Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution & the Arab Spring: Implications for International Intervention. Orbis, 56(4), 662-675.
- Serwer, D. (2012). Post-Asad Syria. Prism: a Journal of the Center for Complex Operations, 3(4), 3-11.
- Sherwood, H., Laville, S., Willsher, K., Knight, B., French, M., & Gambino, L. (2014). Schoolgirl jihadis: the female Islamists leaving home to join ISIS fighters. The Guardian, 29.
- Susser, A. (2015). Jordan Facing Up to the ISIS Challenge: A Net Assessment. Brandeis University, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, 92, 1-8.
- Swarbrooke, J. (1999). Sustainable tourism management. New York: CABI
- Tosun, C. (1997). Questions about „Tourism development within planning paradigms: the case of Turkey. Tourism Management, 18(5), 327-329.
- UNCHR. (2016). Syrian Refugees in Turkey. Retrieved from
http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/documents.php?page=1&view=grid&Coun try%5B%5D=224&Search=%23syrian+refugees%23
- Vassefi, T. (2013). Arab Winter: Threats to the Right to Protest in Transitional Societies, Such as Post-Arab Spring Egypt, An. Am. U. Int'l L. Rev., 29, 1097-1128.
- Williams, A. M., & Hall, C. M. (2000). Tourism and migration: new relationships between production and consumption. Tourism Geographies, 2(1), 5-27.
- Woertz, E. (2014). How Long Will ISIS Last Economically ?. CIDOB Notes Internacionales, (98), 1-5.
Yıl 2017,
Cilt: 3 Sayı: 1, 2 - 13, 15.06.2017
Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer
,
Eyüp Karayılan
,
Merve Aydoğan Çifçi
Kaynakça
- Aiyar, S., Barkbu, B., Batini, N., Berger, H., Detragiache, E., Dizioli, A., Ebeke, C., Lin, H., Kaltani, L., Sosa, S., Spilimbergo, A. & Topalova, P. (2016). The Refugee Surge in Europe: Economic Challenges. IMF Staff Discussion Note. Washington DC: IMF
- Akturk, S. (2013). Russian-Turkish Relations in the 21st Century, 2000-2012. Russian Analytical Digest: Russia’s Relations with Turkey, Bulgaria and Romania, (125), 2-4.
- AlBattat, A. R., Som, A. P., Ghaderi, Z., & AbuKhalifeh, A. N. (2013). The effect of the Arab spring revolution on the Malaysian hospitality industry. International Business Research, 6(5), 92-99.
- Amin, M., Dhillon, N. S., Kharas, H., Assaad, R., Galal, A., Page, J., et al. (2012). After the spring: Economic Transitions in the Arab World. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Anderson, L. (2011). Demystifying the Arab spring. Foreign Affairs, 90(3), 2-7.
- Avraham, E. (2015). Destination image repair during crisis: Attracting tourism during the Arab Spring uprisings. Tourism Management, 47, 224-232.
- Balkan, B., & Tumen, S. (2016). Immigration and Prices: Quasi-Experimental Evidence from Syrian Refugees in Turkey. Ankara: Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey.
- Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (2002). Foundations of qualitative methods. Research Methods in Clinical Psychology: An Introduction for Students and Practitioners, Second Edition, Chichester, UK: John Wiley Press.
- Barriball, L. K., & While, A. (1994). Collecting Data using a semi‐structured interview: a discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19(2), 328-335.
- Benson, M., & O'reilly, K. (2009). Migration and the search for a better way of life: a critical exploration of lifestyle migration. The Sociological Review, 57(4), 608-625.
- Cetin, G. (2014). Sustaining Tourism Development Through City Tax: The case of Istanbul. E-review of Tourism Research, 11(1-2), 26-41.
- Cetin, G., & Bilgihan, A. (2016). Components of cultural tourists‟ experiences in destinations. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(2), 137-154.
- Cockburn, P. (2014). ISIS consolidates. London Review of Books, 36(16), 3-5.
- Dalacoura, K. (2012). The 2011 uprisings in the Arab Middle East: political change and geopolitical implications. International Affairs, 1(88), 63-79.
- Dede, A. Y. (2011). The Arab Uprisings: Debating the "Turkish Model". Insight Turkey, 13(2), 23-32.
- Dodge, T. (2012). From the "Arab Awakening" to the Arab Spring; the Post-colonial State in the Middle East. London School of Economics And Political Science.
- Doxey, G. V. (1975). A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants: Methodology and research inferences. Proceedings of the Travel Research Association Sixth Annual Conference, San Diego, CA. , Sept. 8-11, pp. 195-198.
- Fargues, P., & Fandrich, C. (2012). Migration after the Arab Spring. MPC Research Report 2012/09, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, San Domenico di Fiesole (FI): European University Institute.
- Fielding, D., & Shortland, A. (2011). How do tourists react to political violence? An empirical analysis of tourism in Egypt. Defence and Peace Economics, 22(2), 217-243.
- Gambhir, H. (2015). ISIS‟s Global Strategy: A Wargame. Institute for the Study of War.
- Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (2009). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
- Goodwin, J. (2011). Why We Were Surprised (Again) by the Arab Spring. Swiss Political Science Review, 4(17), 452-456.
- Gwadz, M. V., Gostnell, K., Smolenski, C., Willis, B., Nish, D., Nolan, T. C., et al. (2009). The initiation of homeless youth into the street economy. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 357-377.
- Harvey, W. S. (2011). Strategies for conducting elite interviews. Qualitative Research, 11(4), 431-441.
- Istanbul Culture and Tourism Office (2016), International visitors to Istanbul, Tourism Statistics, retrieved on 20 December 2016.
- Jackiewicz, E. L., & Craine, J. (2010). Destination Panama: An examination of the migration-tourism-foreign investment nexus. Recreation and Society in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 1(1), 5-29.
- Jenkins, B. M. (2015). The Implications of the Paris Terrorist Attack for American Strategy in Syria and Homeland Security. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation
- Joppe, M. (2012). Migrant workers: Challenges and opportunities in addressing tourism labour shortages. Tourism Management, 33(3), 662-671.
- Kamrava, M. (Ed.). (2014). Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the
- Middle East. UK: Hurst & Company Limited.
Kirisci, K. (2014). Syrian Refugees and Turkey‟s Challenges: Going Beyond
- Hospitality. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
- Lee, K., Mcguinness, C., & Kawakami, T. (2011). Research on occupational safety and health for migrant workers in five Asia and the Pacific countries: Australia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. Bangkok: ILO Publications.
- Lotan, G., Graeff, E., Ananny, M., Gaffney, D., & Pearce, I. (2011). The Arab Spring| the revolutions were tweeted: Information flows during the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. International Journal of Communication, 5, 1375–1405
- MacFarquhar, N. (2015). A Most Dangerous Time. Vayau Aerospace and Defence Review,
(6), 8.
- Mathers, N., Fox, N., & Hunn, A. (1998). Trent focus for research and development in primary health care: Using interviews in a research project. Britain: NHS Executive Trent.
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2011). “Vision 2023: Turkey‟s Foreign Policy Objectives”.
- Retrieved from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/speech-entitled-_vision-2023_-turkey_s-foreign-policy-objectives__-delivered-by-h_e_-ahmet-davutoglu_-minister-of-foreign-af.en.mfa 12.04.2016
- Nagarajan, K. V. (2013). Egypt‟s political economy and the downfall of the Mubarak
- Regime. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(10), 22-39.
- Neumayer, E. (2004). The impact of political violence on tourism dynamic cross-national estimation. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 48(2), 259-281.
- Orhan, O., & Gundogar, S. S. (2015). Effects of the Syrian Refugees on Turkey. ORSAM
- Report, 195. Ankara: ORSAM and TESEV.
- Paniagua, A. (2002). Urban-rural migration, tourism entrepreneurs and rural restructuring in Spain. Tourism geographies, 4(4), 349-371.
- Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, inc.
- Pereira Valarini, P. F. (2015). Time to Restart: The experience of Syrian refugees in establishing a business in Istanbul. (Unpublished Master's Thesis), University of Utrecht, Sustainable Development- International Development Thesis Research, Utrecht, Nederlands.
- Petersen, W. (1958). A general typology of migration. American Sociological Review, 23(3), 256-266.
- Rabinovich, I. (2014). The End of Sykes-Picot? Reflections on the Prospects of the Arab State
- System. Saban Center at Brookings, Middle East Memo, February 32, 1-9.
- Rifai, R. (2011). Timeline: Tunisia‟s uprising. Al Jazeera Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/tunisia/2011/01/201114142223 827361.html 08.05.2017.
- Schraeder, P. J. (2012). Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution & the Arab Spring: Implications for International Intervention. Orbis, 56(4), 662-675.
- Serwer, D. (2012). Post-Asad Syria. Prism: a Journal of the Center for Complex Operations, 3(4), 3-11.
- Sherwood, H., Laville, S., Willsher, K., Knight, B., French, M., & Gambino, L. (2014). Schoolgirl jihadis: the female Islamists leaving home to join ISIS fighters. The Guardian, 29.
- Susser, A. (2015). Jordan Facing Up to the ISIS Challenge: A Net Assessment. Brandeis University, Crown Center for Middle East Studies, 92, 1-8.
- Swarbrooke, J. (1999). Sustainable tourism management. New York: CABI
- Tosun, C. (1997). Questions about „Tourism development within planning paradigms: the case of Turkey. Tourism Management, 18(5), 327-329.
- UNCHR. (2016). Syrian Refugees in Turkey. Retrieved from
http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/documents.php?page=1&view=grid&Coun try%5B%5D=224&Search=%23syrian+refugees%23
- Vassefi, T. (2013). Arab Winter: Threats to the Right to Protest in Transitional Societies, Such as Post-Arab Spring Egypt, An. Am. U. Int'l L. Rev., 29, 1097-1128.
- Williams, A. M., & Hall, C. M. (2000). Tourism and migration: new relationships between production and consumption. Tourism Geographies, 2(1), 5-27.
- Woertz, E. (2014). How Long Will ISIS Last Economically ?. CIDOB Notes Internacionales, (98), 1-5.