Learning During Wildlife Tours in Protected Areas: Towards a Better Understanding of the Nature of Social Relations in Guided Tours

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 1, 51 - 71, 13.05.2019

Jonathon Spring

Öz

This article explores guided wildlife tours in Protected Areas (PAs) in the context of free-choice learning, social relations and environmental stewardship. Free-choice learning refers to people’s informal learning that occurs without requisite external assessment such as schools or workplaces. While the literature argues that guides on wildlife tours in PAs should make visitors aware of a set of achievable on and off-site actions the informal nature of such educational activities is difficult to measure. Research on guided tours on Tiritiri Matangi, New Zealand highlights the complex nature of social interaction between tour participants and the factors that impact on learning during a guided tour. The nature of the social relations that inform guide visitor interaction (GVI) is discussed in the context of Relations Model Theory and freechoice learning. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Guided tours, Learning, Protected areas, Social relations, Relations model theory, Wildlife tours

Kaynakça

• Attenborough, D. (1998) Life of Birds. London, England: British Broadcasting Corporation.
• Ballantyne, R. & Packer, J. (2011). Using tourism free-choice learning experiences to promote environmentally sustainable behaviour: the role of post-visit ‘action resources’. Environmental Education Research, 17(2), 201–215. Doi: 10.1080/13504622.2010.530645
• Braunias, S. (2007). How to watch a bird. Wellington, New Zealand: Awa Press.
• Brown, M. A., Stephens, T., Peart, R., & Fedder, B. (2015). Vanishing nature: Facing New Zealand’s biodiversity crisis. Auckland, New Zealand: Environmental Defence Society.
• Butler, D., Lindsay, T., & Hunt, J. (2014). Paradise saved: The remarkable story of New Zealand’s wildlife sanctuaries and how they are stemming the tide of extinction. Auckland, New Zealand: Random House.
• Campbell-Hunt, D.M. (2013). Ecotourism and sustainability in community-driven ecological restoration: case studies from New Zealand. WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, 73, 13–22. Doi:10.2495/978-1-84564-814-5/002
• Cetin, G. & Yarcan, S. (2017). The professional relationship between tour guides and tour operators. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 17(4), 345–357.
• Cohen, E. (1985). The tourist guide: Origins, structure and dynamics of a role. Annals of Tourism Research, 12, 5–29.
• Cohen, E. (2004). Contemporary tourism: Diversity and change. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
• Cohen, E.H., Ifergan, M. & Cohen, E. (2002). A new paradigm in guiding: The Madrich as a role model. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(4), 919–932,
• Crosby, A.W. (1986). Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge, England. Cambridge University Press.
• Czikszentmihalyi, M. & Hermanson,K. (1999). Intrinsic motivation in museums: Why does one want to learn? In E. Hooper-Greenhill (Ed.), The educational role of the museum ( 2 n d ed., pp. 146–160). London, England: Routledge.
• Dierking, L. D. (1998). Interpretation as a social experience. In D. Uzzell & R. Ballantyne (Eds.), Contemporary Issues in Heritage and Environmental Interpretation. (pp. 56–76). London, England: The Stationary Office.
• Falk, J. H. (2001) Free-choice science learning: Framing the discussion. In J. H. Falk (ed.), Freechoice science education: How we learn science outside of school. New York, Teachers College Press, pp. 3–20.
• Falk, J. H. (2005). Free-choice environmental learning: Framing the discussion. Environmental Education Research, 11(3), 265–280.
• Falk, J.H., Storksdieck, M., & Dierking, L.D. (2007). Investigating public science interest and understanding: Evidence for the importance of free-choice learning. Public Understanding of Science, 16, 455–469.
• Falk, J.H. & Dierking, L.D. (2000). Learning from Museums: Visitor experiences and the making of meaning. Walnut Creek: CA: AltaMira Press.
• Falk, J.H. & Dierking, L.D. (2012). Lifelong Science Learning for Adults: The Role of Free-Choice Experiences. In B.J. Fraser et al. (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Science Education, (pp. 1063–179). Springer International Handbooks of Education, 24, Doi: 10.1007/978-1-40209041-7_70
• Fiske A.P. (1992). The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99(4), 689 –723.
• Fiske A.P., & Haslam, N. (1997). The structure of social substitutions: A test of relational models theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 725–729.
• Fiske A.P & Rai, T.S. (2011). Moral Psychology Is Relationship Regulation: Moral Motives for Unity, Hierarchy, Equality, and Proportionality. Psychological Review, 118(1) 57–75.
• Fennell, D. A. (2008). Ecotourism (3rd ed.). London, England: Routledge.
• Forestell, P. H. (1993). If Leviathan has a face, does Gaia have a soul?: Incorporating environmental education in marine eco-tourism programs. Ocean & Coastal Management, 20, 267–282.
• Forestell, P. H., & Kaufman, G. D. (2007). Speaking from experience: Whale and dolphin watching boats as venues for marine conservation education. In M. Lück (Ed.) (pp. 63–67). Presented at the 5th International Coastal and Marine Tourism Congress, AUT University. Auckland, New Zealand: AUT University.
• Galbraith, M. (2013). Public and ecology: The role of volunteers on Tiritiri Matangi Island. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 37(3), 266–271.
• Ham, S. H. (1992). Environmental interpretation: A practical guide for people with big ideas and small budgets. Golden, CO: Fulcrum.
• Higham, J. E. S., & Lück, M. (2002). Urban ecotourism: A contradiction in terms? Journal of Ecotourism, 1(1), 36–51.
• Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1999a). Education, communication and interpretation towards a critical pedagogy in museums. In E. Hooper-Greenhill (Ed.), The educational role of the museum (2nd ed., pp. 3–27). London, England: Routledge.
• Hooper-Greenhill, E. (1999b). Learning from learning theory in museums. In E. Hooper-Greenhill (Ed.), The educational role of the museum (2nd ed., pp. 137–145). London, England: Routledge.
• Lindsay, K., Craig, J., & Low, M. (2008). Tourism and conservation: The effects of track proximity on avian reproductive success and nest selection in an open sanctuary. Tourism Management, 29, 730–739.
• Lück, M. (2003). Environmentalism and on-tour experiences of tourists on wildlife watch tours in New Zealand: A study of visitors watching and/or swimming with wild dolphins (PhD thesis). University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
• Lück, M. (2015). Education on marine mammal tours - But what do tourists want to learn? Ocean & Coastal Management, 103, 25–33.
• Marton, F., & Tsui, A. B. M. (2004). Classroom discourse and the space of learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Moscardo, G., Woods, B., & Saltzer, R. (2004). The role of interpretation in wildlife tourism. In K. Higginbottom (Ed.), Wildlife tourism: Impacts, management and planning (pp. 231–251). Altona, Australia: Common Ground Publishing.
• Newsome, D., Moore, S. A., & Dowling, R. K. (2013). Natural area tourism: Ecology, impacts and management. Bristol, England: Channel View
• Orams, M. B. (1995). Managing interaction between wild dolphins and tourists at a dolphin feeding program, Tangalooma, Australia: The development and application of an education progam for tourists and an assessment of “pushy” dolphin behaviour (Doctoral thesis). The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
• Orams, M. B. (2001). Types of ecotourism. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), Encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 23–36).
• Wallingford, England: CABI. Orams, M. B., Forestell, P. H., & Spring, J. (2014) What’s in it for the whales? Exploring the potential contribution of environmental interpretation to conservation. In: J. E. S. Higham, L. Bejder, & R. Williams (eds.), Whale-watching: Sustainable tourism and ecological management. Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press, pp. 146–162.
• Pearce, P. L. (2005). Tourist behaviour: Themes and conceptual schemes. Clevedon, England: Channel View
• Pinker, S., Nowak, M.A. & Lee, J.J. (2008). The logic of indirect speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 105(3), 833–838
• Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rimmer, A. (2008). Tiritiri Matangi: A model of conservation (2nd ed.). Auckland, New Zealand: Tandem.
• Robinson, P., Lück, M., & Smith, S. L. (2013). Tourism. Wallingford, England: CABI. Ross, G. G. (1998). The psychology of tourism (2nd Ed.). Elsternwick, Australia: Hospitality Press.
• Ryan, C. (1998). The Travel Career Model: An appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(4), 936– 957.
• Spring, J. P. (2016) ‘Making Sense of a Wildlife Tourism Experience: A Study of Guide-visitor Interactions’ PhD thesis, Auckland University of Technology, viewed 31March 2018, <http:// hdl.handle.net/10292/10837>.
• St. John, M., & Perry, D. (1993). A framework for evaluation and research: Science, infrastructure and relationships. In S. Bicknell & G. Farmelo (Eds.), Museum visitor studies in the 90s (pp. 59–66). London, England: Science Museum.
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.
• Walker, K. & Moscardo, G. (2014) Encouraging sustainability beyond the tourist experience: ecotourism, interpretation and values. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(8),1175-1196, Doi: 10.1080/09669582.2014.918134
• Walker, K. & Moscardo, G. (2016). Moving beyond sense of place to care of place: the role of Indigenous values and interpretation in promoting transformative change in tourists’ place images and personal values. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(8–9), 1243-1261. Doi: 10.1080/09669582.2016.1177064
• Walker, K. & Weiler, B. (2017) A new model for guide training and transformative outcomes: a case study in sustainable marine-wildlife ecotourism. Journal of Ecotourism, 16(3), 269-290, Doi: 10.1080/14724049.2016.1245736
• Weiler, B., & Black, R. (2015) Tour guiding research: Insights, issues and implications. Bristol, England, Channel View.
• Weiler, B., & Davis, D. (1993). An exploratory investigation into the roles of the nature-based tour leader. Tourism Management, 14(2), 91–98.
• Weiler, B., & Ham, S. H. (2001). Tour guides and interpretation. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Ecotourism (pp. 549–563). Wallingford, England: CABI.
• Wheeller, B. (2003). Alternative tourism: A deceptive ploy. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Classic reviews in tourism (pp. 227–234). Clevedon, England: Channel View.
• Zeppel, H. (2008) Education and Conservation Benefits of Marine Wildlife Tours: Developing Free-Choice Learning Experiences, The Journal of Environmental Education, 39(3), 3–18. Doi: 10.3200/JOEE.39.3.3-18