Fatigue in The Aviation: An Overview of The Measurements and Countermeasures

Abstract

Fatigue is a crucial and cumulative factor for aviation safety causing human errors via decrease in the abilities to conduct tasks that require higher-order intellectual processing. Chronic form of fatigue is more insidious and subjective. Factors causing fatigue are lack of sleep, crew scheduling, a long duty period, Jet or shift lag, high workload, and lacking of physical or mental fitness. There are subjective and objective measurements to estimate fatigue levels. Subjective techniques are based on self-report of the sleep and tiredeness whereas objective interventions are built on the basis the physiological features of the subject (brain waves, eye gaze, facial feature recognition) or their physical manifestations (muscle tone, wrist inactivity, head orientation) and support to maintain alertness and performance during long or uneventful duty period. Fatigue contermeasures are mainly based on self-reported data and there is a need for “safety” factor for self-reports. 

Keywords

• Fatigue,subjective,objective,measuruments,countermeasures

Havacılıkta Yorgunluk: Ölçümler ve Karşı-Önlemlerin bir Gözden Geçirilmesi

Abstract

Yorgunluk yüksek-işlevsel bilişsel süreçlerin kullanılmasını gerektiren işlemlerin becerilmesinde azalmaya yol açan, havacılık güvenliğinde anahtar rolü olan ve birikerek etki gösteren bir insan faktörüdür.  Kronik formu subjektiftir ve kendi çok farkettirmeden gelişebilir. Yorgunluğa yol açan unsurların başlıcaları uykusuzluk, işlerin sıralanışı, uzun iş-süreai, jet-lag/şift-lag, aşırı iş-yükü, fiziksel ve ruhsal uygunsuzluktur. Yorgunluk düzeyini değerlendirmek için objektif ve subjektif ölçüm yöntemleri vardır. Subjektif teknikler kişinin uykusunu ya da yorgunluğunu kendi-raporlaması esasına dayanırken objektif yöntemler kişinin fiziksel özelliklerini (beyin dalgası, göz ile bakış, yüze ait özellikler) ya da bunların dışa vurumlarını (kas tonusu, bilek inaktivitesi, başın yönelimi) değerlendirerek, uzun ya da öngörülemeyen zorluklar içeren bir iş-periyodunda uyanıklık ve performansın sağlanmasına katkı sunar. Yorgunlukla mücadele için geliştirilen unsurlar temelde kişisel-raporlardan elde edilen verilere dayanır ve burada temel esas raporlardaki “güvenirlik” faktörüdür.  

Keywords

• Yorgunluk,subjektif,objektif,ölçümler,önlemler

References

1. Oxford Aviation Academy (OAA), OAT Media Interactive Learning “Chapter 11 Sleep and Fatigue,” ATPL Ground Training Series. Human Performance & Limitations, Fourth edition, 8, 203-222, 2005.
2. Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority, Fatigue Management Strategies for Aviation Workers: A Training & Development Workbook, 2012.
3. M. Miller “Measuring Fatigue,” Asia-Pacific FRMS Seminar, ICAO/IATA/IFALPA, Bangkok, 2012.
4. J. E. Schwartz, L. Jandorf, and L. B. Krupp “The measurement of fatigue: A new instrument,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37, 753-762, 1993.
5. The WHOQoL Group “World Health Organization Quality of Life assesment (WHOQoL): Development and general psychometric properties,” Social Science & Medicine, 46, 1569-1585, 1998.
6. K. A. Lee, G. Hicks, and G. Nino-Murcie “Validity and reliability of a scale to assess fatigue,” Psychiatry Research, 36, 291-298, 1991.
7. G. F. Wilson, C. Russell, and J. Caldwell “Performance and psychophysiological measures of fatigue effects on aviation related tasks of varying difficulty,” Air Force Research Laboratory, AFRL-HE-WP-TP-2006-0095, 2006.
8. T. Chalder, G. Berelowitz, T. Pawlikowska, L. Watts, A. Wessely, D. Wright, and E. P. Wallace “Development of a fatigue scale,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37, 147-153, 1993.

9. L. B. Krupp, N. G. LaRocca, J. Muir-Nash, and A.D. Steinberg “The fatigue severity scale. Application to patients with multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus,” Archieves of Neurology, 46, 1121-1123, 1989.
10. S. W. Samn, and L. P. Perelli “Estimating aircrew fatigue: a technique with application to airlift operations (No. SAM-TR-82-21)” School of Aerospace Medicine Brooks Afb Tx, 1982.
11. E. Hoddes, W. Dement, and V. Zarcone “The history and use of the Stanford Sleepiness Scale,” Psychophysiology, 9, 150-152, 1972.
12. T. Akerstedt, and M. Gillberg “Subjective and objective sleepiness in the active individual,” International Journal of Neuroscience, 52, 29-37, 1990.
13. J. L. Caldwell, J. F. Chandler, and B. M. Hartzler “Battling fatigue in aviation: Recent advancements in research and practice,” Journal of Medical Sciences (Taiwan), 32, 47-56, 2012.
14. Transport Canada, Fatigue Risk Management System for the Canadian Aviation Industry “Introduction to fatigue audits tools,” TP 14577E, 2007.
15. J. A. Caldwell, M. M. Mallis, J. L. Caldwell, M. A. Paul, J. C. Miller, and D. F. Neri “Fatigue countermeasures in aviation,” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 80, 29-59, 2009.
16. G. Borghini, L. Astolfi, G. Vecchiato, D. Mattia, and F. Babiloni “Measuring neurophysiological signals in aircraft pilots and car drivers for the assesment of mental workload, fatigue and drowsiness, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 44, 58-75, 2014.
17. L. L. Di Staci, M. B. McCamy, S. Martinez-Conde, E. Gayles, C. Hoare, M. Foster, A. Catena, and S. L. Macknik “Effects of long and short simulated flights on the saccadic eye movement velocity of aviators,” Psychology & Behavior, 153, 91-96, 2016.
18. Z. Zhu, and Q. Ji “Real-time and non-intrusive driver fatigue monitoring,” Intelligent Transportation Systems, Proceedings. The 7th International IEE Conference, 657-662, 2004.
19. H. Ott, and K. Kranda, Flicker Techniques in Psychopharmacology, Weinheim: Beltz Verlag GmBH, 1982.
20. D. F. Dinges, F. Pack, K. Williams, K. A. Gillen, J. W. Powell, G. E. Ott, C. Aptowicz, and A. I. Pack “Cumulative sleepiness, mood disturbance, and psychomotor vigilance performance decrements during a week of sleep restricted to 4-5 hours per night,” Sleep, 20, 267-277, 1997.
21. M. Basner, and J. Rubinstein “Fitness for duty: A 3 minute version of psychomotor vigilance test predicts fatigue related declines in luggage screening performance,” Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53, 1146-1154, 2011.
22. J. Ma, R.-M. Ma, X.-W. Liu, K. Bian, Z.-H. W, X.-J. Li, Z.-M. Zhang, and W.-D. Hu “Workload influence on fatigue related psychological and physiological performance chamges of aviators,” PLoS ONE, 9, e87121, 2014.
23. A. P. Tvaryanas, and W. T. Thompson “A survey of fatigue in selected United States Air Force shift worker populations,” United States Air Force 311th Human System Wing, HSW-PE-BR-TR-2006-003, 2006.
24. S. Chaturvedula, A. Narayanamoorthi, and R. K. Murty “Personality maneuvers flyers fatigue: Indian sivil aviation scenario,” Indian Journal of Aerospace and Medicine, 55, 17-25, 2011.
25. C. Reis, C. Mestre, and H. Canhao “Prevalance of fatigue in a group of airline pilots,” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 84, 828-833, 2013.
26. T. M. Aljurf, A. H. Olaish, and A. S. BaHammam, “Assessment of sleepiness, fatigue, and depression among Gulf Cooperation Council commercial airline pilots,” Sleep & Breathing = Schlaf & Atmung, 22, 411-419, 2018.
27. D. M. C. Powell, M. B. Spencer, D. Holland, E. Broadbent, and K. J. Petrie “Pilot fatigue in short-haul operations: Effects of number of sectors, duty length, and time of day,” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 78, 698-701, 2007.
28. R. M. Petrilli, G. D. Roach, D. Dawson, and N. Lamond “The sleep, subjective fatigue, and sustained attention of commercial airline pilots during an international pattern,” Chronobiology International, 23, 1347-1362, 2006.
29. P. H. Gander, H. M. Mulrine, M. J. van den Berg, A. A. T. Smith, T. L. Signal, L. J. Wu, and G. Belenky “Effects of sleep/wake history and circadian phase on proposed pilot fatigue safety performance indicators,” Journal of Sleep Research, 24, 110-119, 2015.
30. P. H. Gander, J. Mangie, M. J. Van Den Berg, A. A. Smith, H. M. Mulrine, and T. L. Signal, “Crew fatigue safety performance indicators for fatigue risk management systems,” Aviation and Space and Environmental Medicine, 85, 139-147, 2014.
31. G. H. Kamimori, D. Johnson, D, Thorne, and G. Belenky “Multiple caffeine doses maintain vigilance during early morning operations,” Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 76, 1046-1050, 2005.
32. C. A. Eriksen, T. Akerstedt, and J. P. Nilsson “Fatigue in trans-Atlantic airline operations: diaries and actigraphy for two vs. three-pilot crew,” Aviation and Space and Environmental Medicine, 77, 605-612, 2006.
33. M. R. Rosekind, R. Mark, K. B. Gregory, and M. M. Mellis “Alertness management in aviation operations: enhancing performance and sleep,” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 77, 1256-1265, 2006.
34. H. P. A. Van Dongen, G. Maislin, J. M. Mullington, and D. F. Dinges “The cumulative cost of additional wakefulness: dose-response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation,” Sleep, 26, 117-126, 2003.
35. M. Sallinen, M. Sihvola, S. Puttonen, K. Ketola, A. Tuori, M. Harma, G. Kecklund G, and T. Akersted T “Sleep, alertness and alertness management among commercial airline pilots on short-haul and long-haul flights,” Accident; Analysis and Prevention, 98, 320-329, 2017.
36. J. L. Zaslona, K. M. O’Keeffe, T. L. Signal, and P. H. Gander, “Shared responsibility for managing fatigue: Hearing the pilots,” PLoS One, 13, e0195530, 2018.
37. M. R. Rosekind, K. B. Gregory, E. L. Co, D. L. Miller and D. F. Dinges “Crew factors in flight operations XII: A survey of sleep quantity and quality in on-board crew rest facilities,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA/TM-2000-209611, 2000.
38. C. Cajochen “Alerting effects of light,” Psychological Review, 11, 453-464, 2007.
39. V. L. Revell, J. Arendt, L. F. Fogg, and D. J. Skene “Alerting effect of light are sensitive to very short wavelengths,” Neuroscience Letters, 399, 96-100, 2006.
40. K. B. Avers, S. J. King, T. E. Nesthus, S. Thomas, and J. Banks “Flight attendant fatigue, Part I: National duty, rest and fatigue survey,” Federal Aviation Administration, DOT/FAA/AM-09/24 Office of Aerospace Medicine, Washington, DC 20591, 2009.
41. G. D. Roach, R. M. A. Petrilli, D. Dawson, and N. Lamond “Impact of layover length on sleep, subjective fatigue levels, and sustained attention of long-haul airline pilots,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, 45, 22-26, 2012.
42. K. J. Petrie, D. Powell, and E. Broadbent “Fatigue self-management strategies and reported fatigue in international pilots,” Ergonomics, 47, 461-468, 2011.
43. B. M. Hartzler “Fatigue on the flight deck: the consequences of sleep loss and the benefits of napping,” Accid Anal Prev, 62, 309-318, 2014.
44. J. Dai, M. Luo, W. Hu, and Z. Wen, “Developing a fatigue questionnaire for Chinese civil aviation pilots,” International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics: JOSE, 23,1-13, 2018.
45. Jr K. P. Wright, R. K. Bogan, and J. K. Wyatt “Shift work and the assessment and management of shift work disorder (SWD),” Sleep Med Rev, 17, 41-54, 2013.
46. D. Powell, M. B. Spencer, D. Holland, and K. J. Petrie “Fatigue in two-pilot operations: implications for flight and duty time limitations,” Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 79, 1047-1050, 2008.
47. A. M. Kelley, K. A. Feltman, and I. P. Curry, “A Survey of Fatigue in Army Aviators,” Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 89, 464-468, 2018.
48. L. K. Barger, K. P. Wright Jr, R. J. Hughes, and C. A. Czeisler, “Daily exercise facilitates phase delays of circadian melatonin rhytm in very dim light,” American Journal of Psychology, 286, R1077-1084, 2004.