DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING METHODS FOR THE THORAX IN SMALL MAMMALS

Year 2026, Volume: 1, 8 - 14, 29.12.2025

Hilal Gencer , Utku Bakırel , Serhat Özsoy

Abstract

In recent years, there has been an increase in the care, adoption, and breeding of exotic pet animals in Turkey. Among exotic animals, a portion of those preferred as pets includes small mammals. This group encompasses rabbits, ferrets, and rodents (hamsters, rats, and guinea pigs), distinguishing themselves from traditional domestic mammals such as cats and dogs. The unique anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiological features of small mammals highlight the necessity for a specialized field within veterinary medicine. Particularly, diagnostic imaging methods play a crucial role in the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of diseases in these animals. Radiography, ultrasonography (USG), endoscopy, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are frequently employed diagnostic imaging methods in small mammals. This review will focus on evaluating diagnostic imaging techniques related to the respiratory system of small mammals. Thus, it is aimed to inform our colleagues about the use and interpretation of diagnostic imaging techniques preferred in the diagnosis and treatment control processes of respiratory diseases of small mammals.

Keywords

computerized tomography , bronchoscopy , radiography , respiratory system , ultrasonography

References

• 1. Welsh M: Diagnostic imaging of exotic pets: Birds, small mammals, reptiles. Aust Vet J, 89 (10): 1443-299, 2011. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00824.x
• 2. Capello V, Lennox AM: Diagnostic imaging of the respiratory system in exotic companion mammals. Vet Clin Exot Anim Pract, 14 (2): 369-389, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.009
• 3. Johnson-Delaney C: Guinea pigs, chinchillas, degus, and duprasi. In, Meredith A, Johnson-Delaney C (Eds): BSAVA Manual of Exotic Pets. 5th ed., 28-62, Gloucester, United Kingdom, 2010.
• 4. O’Malley B: Structure and function of mammals, birds and reptiles and amphibians: Guinea pigs. In, O’Malley MA (Ed): Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of Exotic Species. 197-208, Saunders, London, 2005.
• 5. Longley L: Anaesthesia of Exotic Pets. 1-24, Elsevier Saunders, Edinburg, 2008.
• 6. Divers SJ: Small mammal anesthesia. In, Proceedings of Exotic Animal Medicine for the Clinical Practitioner of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Conference. Los Angeles (CA), 2008.
• 7. Johnson-Delaney C, Orosz SE: The respiratory system: Exotic companion mammals. In, Proceedings of the 30th Annual Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference and Expo with the AEMV, Elsevier, 41-49, Milwaukee, 2009.
• 8. Breazile JE, Brown EM: The biology of the guinea pig. In, Wagner JE, Manning PJ (Eds): Anatomy. 53-62, Academic Press, New York, 1976.
• 9. Johnson-Delaney CA, Orosz SE: Rabbit respiratory system: Clinical anatomy, physiology and disease. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract, 14 (2): 257-266, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.002
• 10. Donnelly TM, Brown CJ: Guinea pig and chinchilla care and husbandry. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract, 7 (2): 351-373, 2004. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2004.02.006
• 11. Hrapkiewicz K, Medina L, Holmes D: Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine: An İntroduction. 3rd ed., 198-238, Blackwell Publishing, Ames (IA), 2007. 12. Mancinelli E: Respiratory disease in rabbits. InPractice, 41 (3): 121-129, 2019. DOI: 10.1136/inp.l1425
• 13. Popesko P, Rajtová V, Horák J: A Colour Atlas of Anatomy of Small Laboratory Animals. Vol. 1, 18-22, Wolfe Publishing, 1992.
• 14. Capello V: Rhinostomy as surgical treatment of odontogenic rhinitis in three pet rabbits. J Exot Pet Med, 23, 172-187, 2014. DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2014.02.005
• 15. Müllhaupt D, Wenger S, Kircher P, Pfammatter N, Hatt JM, Ohlerth S: Computed tomography of the thorax in rabbits: A prospective study in ten clinically healthy New Zealand white rabbits. Acta Vet Scand, 59 (1):72, 2017. DOI: 10.1186/s13028-017-0340-x
• 16. Varga M: Cardiorespiratory disease. In, Varga M (Ed): Textbook of Rabbit Medicine. 2nd ed., 390-404, Elsevier, England, UK, 2014.
• 17. Johnson-Delaney CA, Orosz SE: Ferret respiratory system: Clinical anatomy, physiology, and disease. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract, 14 (2): 357-367, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2011.03.001
• 18. Whary MT, Andrews PLR: Physiology of the ferret. In, Fox JG (Ed): Biology and Diseases of the Ferret. 2nd ed., 103-148, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1998.
• 19. Hebel R, Stromberg MW: Anatomy and Embryology of the Laboratory Rat. 58-64, Biomed Verlag, Germany Worthsee, 1986.
• 20. O’Malley B: Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of Exotic Species. 209-236, Elsevier, Ireland, 2005.
• 21. Sharp PE, LaRegina MC: Important biological features. In, Suckow MA (Ed): The Laboratory Rat. 1-9, CRC Press, Boca Raton,1998.
• 22. Percy DH, Barthold SW: Pathology of Laboratory Rodents and Rabbits. 2nd ed., 107-158, Iowa State University Press, Ames, 2001.
• 23. Bivin WS, Olsen, GA, Murray KA: Morphophysiology. In, Van Hoosier GL, McPherson CAW (Eds): Laboratory Hamsters. 9-42, Academic Press, Orlando, 1987.
• 24. Shelby AM, McKune CM: Anesthesia and analgesia in the exotic patient. In, Shelby AM, McKune CM (Eds): Small Animal Anesthesia Techniques. 2nd ed., 197-230, John Wiley & Sons, Missouri, 2022.
• 25. Hedley J: BSAVA Small Animal Formulary. Part B: Exotic Pets. 10th ed., 360, John Wiley & Sons, London, 2020.
• 26. Capello V, Lennox AM: Clinical Radiology of Exotic Companion Mammals. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
• 27. Silverman S, Tell LA: Radiology of rodents, rabbits, and ferrets: An atlas of normal anatomy and positioning. Can Vet J, 47 (10):1039. 2006.
• 28. Künzel F, Hittmair KM, Hassan J, Dupré G, Russold E, Guija de Arespachochaga A, Bilek A: Thymomas in rabbits: Clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc, 48 (2): 97-104, 2012. DOI: 10.5326/JAAHA-MS-5683
• 29. Kevin K, McAllister H: Diagnostic Radiology & Ultrasonography of the Dog and Cat. 4th ed., 173-295, Elsevier, Iowa, 2005.
• 30. Thrall DE: Textbook of Veterinary Diagnostic Radiology. 4th ed., Elsevier, Missouri, 2002.
• 31. Capello V, Lennox AM: Clinical Radiology of Exotic Companion Mammals. Blackwell Publishing, Ames (IA), 2008.
• 32. Schwarz T, Johnson V: BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Thoracic Imaging. 5-72, BSAVA Publishing, UK, 2008.
• 33. Tsai S, Sutherland-Smith J, Burgess K, Ruthazer R, Sato A: Imaging characteristics of intrathoracic histiocytic sarcoma in dogs. Vet Radiol Ultrasound, 53, 21-27, 2012. DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01863.x
• 34. Reetz JA, Buza EL, Krick EL: CT features of pleural masses and nodules. Vet Radiol Ultrasound, 53, 121-127, 2012. DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-8261.2011.01883.x
• 35. Liszewski MC, Ciet P, Winant AJ: Lung and large airway imaging: Magnetic resonance imaging versus computed tomography. Pediatr Radiol, 52, 1814-1825, 2022. DOI: 10.1007/s00247-022-05386-8
• 36. Park JW, Jeong WG, Lee JE, Lee HJ, Ki SY, Lee BC, Kim HO, Kim SK, Heo SH, Lim HS, Shin SS, Yoon W, Jeong YY, Kim YH: Pictorial review of mediastinal masses with an emphasis on magnetic resonance imaging, Korean J Radiology, 22 (1): 139-154, 2021 DOI: 10.3348/kjr.2019.0897
• 37. Søren R: Lung ultrasonography for pneumothorax in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 51, 1153-1167, 2021. DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2021.07.003
• 38. Gül Y: Tanısal Görüntüleme Yöntemleri. In, Bakırel U (Ed): Veteriner Hekimlikte Klinik Muayene ve Tanı Yöntemleri. Anadolu Nobel Tıp Kitabevleri, 2022.
• 39. Soldati G, Testa A, Silva FR, Carbone L, Portale G, Silveri NG: Chest ultrasonography in lung contusion. Chest, 130 (2): 533-538, 2006. DOI: 10.1378/chest.130.2.533
• 40. Rovida S, Orso D, Naeem S, Vetrugno L, Volpicelli G: Lung ultrasound in blunt chest trauma: A clinical review. Ultrasound, 30 (1): 72-79, 2022. DOI: 10.1177/1742271X21994604
• 41. Kirkpatrick AW, Sirois M, Laupland KB, Liu D, Rowan K, Ball CG, Hameed SM, Brown R, Simons R, Dulchavsky SA, Hamiilton DR, Nicolaou S: Hand-held thoracic sonography for detecting post-traumatic pneumothoraces: The extended focused assessment with sonography for trauma (EFAST), J Trauma, 57 (2): 288-295 2004. DOI: 10.1097/01.ta.0000133565.88871.e4 42. Goel A, Carroll D, Fortin F: Pneumothorax (ultrasound). 2021. https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pneumothorax-ultrasound-1?lang=us; DOI: 10.53347/rID-39268
• 43. Levshin S, Eshar D, Naor A: Idiopathic chylothorax in a pet rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Comp Anim, 21, 534-537, 2016. DOI: 10.12968/coan.2016.21.9.534
• 44. Sasse S, Nguyen T, Teixeira LR, Light R: The utility of daily therapeutic thoracentesis for the treatment of early empyema. Chest, 16 (6): 1703-1708, 1999. DOI: 10.1378/chest.116.6.1703
• 45. Tran HS, Puc MM, Tran JL, Del Rossi AJ, Hewitt CW: A method of endoscopic endotracheal intubation in rabbits. Lab Anim, 35 (3): 249-252, 2001. DOI: 10.1258/0023677011911705
• 46. Köse Sİ, Maden M: Barınak köpeklerinde sık karşılaşılan bakteriyel alt solunum yolu hastalıkları, teşhis ve tedavi prensipleri. AVKAE Derg, 4, 64-76, 2014. https://vetkontrol.tarimorman.gov.tr/adana/Sayfalar/Detay. aspx?SayfaId=104
• 47. Johnson LR, Drazenovich TL, Hawkins MG: Endoscopic evaluation of bronchial morphology in rabbits. Am J Vet Res, 68 (9):1022-1027, 2007. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.68.9.1022
• 48. Amis TC, McKiernan BC: Systematic identification of endobronchial anatomy during bronchoscopy in the dog. Am J Vet Res, 47 (12): 2649-2657, 1986.
• 49. Smith BL, Aguilera-Tejero E, Tyler WS, Jones JH, Hornof WJ, Pascoe JR: Endoscopic anatomy and map of the equine bronchial tree. Equine Vet J, 26 (4): 283-290, 1994. DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04388.x
• 50. Phalen RF, Oldham MJ: Tracheobronchial airway structure as revealed by casting techniques. Am Rev Respir Dis, 128 (2pt2): S1-S4, 1983.
• 51. Jacomelli M, Margotto SS, Demarzo SE, Scordamaglio PR, Cardoso PFG, Palomino AL, Figueiredo VR: Early complications in flexible bronchoscopy at a university hospital. J Bras Pneumol, 46 (4):e20180125, 2020. DOI: 10.36416/1806-3756/e20180125