Hakikat-Ötesi Dönemde Avrupa Kimliği: Doğu Vakası

Yıl 2022, Sayı: 6, 41 - 66, 31.12.2022

Seray Yıldız

Öz

Avrupa kimliği ulusal kimliklerle birlikte var olmaktadır. Bu gerçek, özellikle Avrupa Birliği (AB) kurulduktan ve geliştikten sonra varolmuştur. Avrupa kimliği özellikle politikacıların duyguları kendi politikalarını meşrulaştırmak için kullandıkları hakikat-ötesi (post-truth) döneminde daha da kullanılışlı hale gelmiştir. Ancak popülist politikalar kimlikte bir değişime sebep olabilir. Bu çalışmada hakikat-ötesi konsepti incelenecek ve post-truth politikaları ile popülizm arasında bağlantı kurulacaktır. Sonrasında, Avrupa politik kimlik gelişimi ve AB’nin kabul edilmiş Avrupa değerleri incelenecektir. Doğu Avrupa ülkelerinin popülizme daha kuvvetli bir meyili olduğu gerekçesiyle Doğu Avrupa kimliğinde bir değişim olduğu üzerine bir sonuca varılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Avrupa Kimliği, Post-truth, Popülist Politikalar, Avrupa Değerleri, AB

EUROPEAN IDENTITY IN POST-TRUTH ERA: EASTERN CASE

Öz

European identity exists within nationalist identities. This fact came into existence especially after European Union (EU) came together and evolved. European identity, especially in post-truth era where emotions are being used by politicians to justify their policies, identity politics is useful more than ever. But using populist policies might cause a shift in identity. In this paper concept of post-truth will be examined and a connection with post-truth politics and populism will be linked. After that, European political identity evaluation and acknowledged European values of EU will be examined. Conclusion on a shift occurring in Eastern European identity will be reached due to the evaluation in which Eastern European countries has stronger tendency towards populism.

Anahtar Kelimeler

European Identity, Post-truth, Populist Policies, European Values, EU

Kaynakça

• Amnesty International (2018). “Poland: The Law on the Institute of National Remembrance contravenes the right to freedom of expression”, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur37/7858/2018/en/ (Accessed 26.10.2021).
• Barbière, Cécile (2018). “French pro-European right launches breakaway party”, https://www.euractiv.com/section/eu-elections-2019/news/la-droite-pro-europeenne-fait-officiellement-secession-avec-agir/ (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• Bayer, Alexei (2020). “Donald Lukashenko: Amazing Parallels Between Belarus and the US”, https://www.theglobalist.com/united-states-donald-trump-belarus-protests-alexander-lukashenko-democracy/ (Accessed 06.10.2021).
• BBC NEWS (2021). “Roman Protasevich: House arrest form an seized in Ryanair Belarus jet drama”, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-57607580 (Accessed 05.07.2022).
• Belarus.by (2021). “Lukashenko: We are living in the era of post-truth”, https://www.belarus.by/en/press-center/all-belarusian-peoples-congress/lukashenko-we-are-living-in-the-era-of-post-truth_i_125457.html (Accessed 03.10.2021).
• Benazir, Khalimat Rachida (2021). “Direct Democracy and the Rise of Populism in Switzerland”. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS STUDIES JOURNAL, (2), 21-37.
• Bill, Stanley (2016). “The politics of heroism: the museum of Poles saving Jews in World War II”, https://notesfrompoland.com/2016/03/21/the-politics-of-heroism-the-museum-of-poles-saving-jews-in-world-war-ii/ (Accessed 02.07.2022).
• Brzozowski, Alexandra (2019). “EU country briefing: Belgium”, https://www.euractiv.com/section/eu-elections-2019/news/eu-country-briefing-belgium/ (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• CBS NEWS (2005). “Bush calls Belarus Europe’s last dictatorship”, https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bush-calls-belarus-europe-s-last-dictatorship-1.569028 (Accessed 02.10.2021).
• Chopin, Thierry (2018). “Europe and the identity challenge: who are ‘we’?” European Issues, (466), 1-6.
• D66 International (2022). “What we stand for” https://international.d66.nl/what-we-stand-for/ (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• DIPD (2022). “The Danish People’s Party”, https://dipd.dk/en/node/231 (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• Duval Smith, Alex (2016). “Will Poland ever uncover the truth about the plane crash that killed its president?”, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/07/smolensk-plane-crash-lech-kaczynski-poland-russia (Accessed 02.07.2022).
• EEAS (2016). “Belarus and EU”, https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/15975/belarus-and-eu_en (Accessed 10.10.2021).
• ERSTE Foundation (2019, March 18) Francis Fukuyama: Identity Politics – The Demand for Dignity and the Nation State’s Future [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X8N4EBV5iK8.
• EUR-Lex (2007). “The 2004 enlargement: the challenge of a 25-member EU”, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Ae50017 (Accessed 09.10.2021).
• EUR-Lex (2012). “Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union”, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/treaty/teu_2012/art_2/oj (Accessed 22.10.2021).
• EUR-Lex (2018). “Treaty of Maastrich on European Union”, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:xy0026 (Accessed 23.09.2021).
• European Council (2021). “EU imposes sanctions on Belarussian economy”, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/06/24/eu-imposes-sanctions-on-belarusian-economy/ (Accessed 01.10.2021).
• Favell, Adrian (2010). “European Identity and European Citizenship in Three ‘Eurocities’: A Sociological Approach to the European Union”. L'Harmattan, (30), 187-224.
• Feledy, Botond (2017). “Hungary: Populism or politics?”, https://www.cidob.org/en/articulos/cidob_report/n1_1/hungary_populism_or_politics (Accessed 07.10.2021). Fligstein, Neil., Polyakova, Alina and Sandholtz, Wayne (2012). “European Integration, Nationalism and European Identity.” JCMS, (50), 106-122.
• France24 (2022). “Poland postpones May 10 presidential election over Covid-19 fears”, https://www.france24.com/en/20200506-poland-postpones-may-10-presidential-election-over-covid-19-fears (Accessed 02.07.2022).
• Fukuyama, Francis (2018). IDENTITY: THE DEMAND FOR DIGNITY AND THE POLITICS OF RESENTMENT. New York: Faffar, Straus and Giroux. Galston, William A (2018). “The Populist Challenge to Liberal Democracy”. Journal of Democracy, 29(2), 5-19.
• Gil, Cameron Michael (2019). “Spatial analysis of La République En Marche and French Parties, 2002–2017”. French Politics, 17(2), 184-210. doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41253-018-0073-x.
• Goclowski, Marcin and Zurawski, Wojciech (2020). “Poland critical of Russia 10 years after Smolensk air crash”, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-poland-politics-smolensk-idUSKCN21S16E (Accessed 09.10.2021).
• Goujon, Alexandra. (1999). “Language, nationalism, and populism in Belarus, Nationalities Papers”. The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 27(4), 661-677, doi: 10.1080/009059999108885.
• Grzebyk, Patrycja (2017). “Amendments of January 2018 to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance – Commission For the Prosecution of Crimes Againts the Polish Nation in Light of International Law”. XXXVII Polish Yearbook of International Law, 287-300. Doi: 10.7420/pyil2017o.
• Henley, John (2019). “Dutch Eurosceptics dream of united front to roll back EU” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/20/dutch-eurosceptics-dream-of-united-front-to-roll-back-eu (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• Hussain, Amina (2019). “Theorising Post-Truth: A Postmodern Phenomenon”, Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics, 42(1), 150-161.
• Jegelevicius, Linas (2020). “Belarus and coronavirus: Lukashenko’s business-as-usual approach is ‘mind-blowing negligence”, https://www.euronews.com/2020/04/21/belarus-and-coronavirus-lukashenko-s-business-as-usual-approach-is-mind-blowing-negligence (Accessed 08.10.2021).
• Kaya, Ayhan (2018). “Right-wing populism and Islamophobism in Europe and their impact on Turkey–EU relations”. Turkish Studies, 21(1), 1-28. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683849.2018.1499431.
• Keyes, Ralph (2004). The Post-Truth Era: Dishonesty and Deception in Contemporary Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
• Komuves, Anita. (2018). “Hungary is a Post-truth Labratory”, https://vsquare.org/hungary-is-a-post-truth-laboratory-peter-kreko/ (Accessed 28.10.2021).
• Koruk, Ersel (2020). Gerçeklik-Ötesi Çağı Hegemonya ve İklim Krizi Üzerinden Anlamak (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Marmara, İstanbul.
• Kovács, János Mátyás and Trencsényi, Balázs (eds.). (2020). Brave New Hungary. London: Lexington Books.
• Kovács, Kriszta. (2021). “Hungary and the Pandemic: A Pretext for Expanding Power”, https://verfassungsblog.de/hungary-and-the-pandemic-a-pretext-for-expanding-power/ (Accessed 05.10.2021).
• Lister, Tim (2021). “Belarus condemned for ‘hijacking’ Ryanair plane to detain journalist”, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/23/europe/belarus-ryanair-pratasevich-intl/index.html (Accessed 02.10.2021).
• Loftus, Suzanne. (2020). “COVID-19 And Responsible Leadership In A “Post-Truth” Age”, https://globalsecurityreview.com/covid-19-responsible-leadership-post-truth-age/ (Accessed 07.10.2021).
• Mallinder, Lorraine. (2018). “Inside Hungary’s Post-truth Labratory”, https://newint.org/features/2018/07/023/post-truth-laboratory (Accessed 26.09.2021).
• Marshall, Hannah and Drieschova, Alena (2018). “Post-Truth Politics in the UK’s Brexit Referendum”. New Perspectives, 26(3), 89-105. McIntyre, Lee (2018). Post-truth. Cambridge: MIT Press.
• Müller, Jan-Werner (2016). What is Populism? Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Noury, Abdul and Gerard, Roland (2020). “Identity Politics and Populism in Europe”. The Annual Review of Political Science, (23), 421-439. Oxford Languages (2021). “Word of the Year 2016”, https://languages.oup.com/word-of-the-year/2016/ (Accessed 22.10.2021).
• Papadogiannis, Nikolaos (2019). “Is there such thing as a ‘European Identity’?”, https://theconversation.com/is-there-such-thing-as-a-european-identity-117052 (Accessed 22.10.2021).
• Pető, Andrea (2021). “The Illiberal Memory Politics in Hungary”. Journal of Genocide Research, 24(2), 241-249.
• Prado, C. G. (2018). America’s Post-Truth Phenomenon. California: Praeger Publishing.
• Pronczuk, Monika and Kocejko, Bartosz (2018). “Polish PM Morawiecki in the land of post-truth. 7 most blatant lies”, https://oko.press/polish-pm-morawiecki-in-the-land-of-the-post-truth-7-most-blatant-lies/ (Accessed 23.09.2021).
• Randeria, Shalini (2017). “Orbán’s Lawfare against Liberal Democracy in Hungary”, https://globalchallenges.ch/issue/2/orbans-lawfare-liberal-democracy-hungary/ (Accessed 07.10.2021).
• Rietdijk, Natascha (2021). “Post-truth Politics and Collective Gaslighting”. Episteme, pp. 1-17. doi: 10.1017/epi.2021.24.
• Roloff, Ralf and Dunay, Pál (2018). “The Age of Post-Truth”, Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes, 17(2), 19-36.
• Rowinski, Paul (ed.). (2021). Post-Truth, Post-Press, Post-Europe: Euroscepticism and the Crisis of Political Communication. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
• SATIO and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Foundation (2020). “Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Social and Economic Processes in Belarus”, http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/ukraine/17415.pdf (Accessed 06.10.2021).
• Schindler, John R (2018). “New Evidence Shows Russia Played a Role in Plane Crash That Killed Poland’s top Brass”, https://observer.com/2018/05/evidence-shows-russia-had-role-in-smolensk-crash-killed-kaczynski/ (Accessed 10.10.2021).
• Shingaryov, Anrey (2020). “The presidentwithout a plan Alexander Lukashenko still insists nobody’s going to die from COVID-19. What on earth is happening in Belarus?”, https://meduza.io/en/feature/2020/04/16/the-president-without-a-plan (Accessed 07.09. 2021).
• Shotter, James and Foy, Henry (2020). “Ten years after the Smolensk air disaster, political scars remain”, https://www.ft.com/content/41e31f96-73ac-11ea-95fe-fcd274e920ca (Accessed 09.10.2021).
• Socialdemokratiet (2022). “Foreign Policy and the EU”, https://www.socialdemokratiet.dk/english/foreign-policy-and-the-eu/# (Accessed 28.06.2022).
• Speed, Ewen and Mannion, Russell (2017). “The Rise of Post-truth Populism in Pluralist Liberal Democracies: Challenges for Health Policy”. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 6(5), 249–251.
• Stojarová, Věra (2018). “Populist, Radical and Extremist Political Parties in Visegrad countries vis à vis the migration crisis. In the name of the people and the nation in Central Europe”. Open Political Science, (1), 32-45. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/openps-2018-0001.
• Suiter, Jane (2016). “Post-truth Politics”, Political Insight, 7(3), 25-27.
• Tekiner, Uğur (2020). “The ‘European (Union) Identity’: An Overview”, https://www.e-ir.info/2020/04/15/the-european-union-identity-an-overview/ (Accessed 24.09.2021).
• Tesich, Steve. (1992). “A government of lies.” The Nation. https://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=11665982 (Accessed 04.11.2021).
• Trzcińska, Julia (2018) “Humor and Sarcasm as a Tool against Populism in Poland”, EPRIE Journal, 18-20.
• Velasco, Andrés (2020). “Populism and Identity Politics”, LSE Public Policy Review, 1, (1), 1–8. doi: https://doi.org/10.31389/lseppr.1.
• Viasna Human Rights Center (2021). “As of November 5 835 persons in Belarus are considered as political prisoners (2021, November 5), https://prisoners.spring96.org/en (Accessed 05.10.2021).
• Waisbord, Silvio (2018). “The elective affinity between post-truth communication and populist politics”, Communication Research and Practice, 4(1), 17-34. doi: 10.1080/22041451.2018.1428928. Wiiw (2021). “Belarus.”, https://wiiw.ac.at/belarus-overview-ce-17.html (Acessed 07.10.2021).
• Williams, Matthias (2021). “Belarus leader: change constitution to prevent opposition from taking power”, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/belarus-leader-change-constitutionprevent-opposition-taking-power-2021-09-28/ (Accessed 08.10.2021).
• Wilsdon, James (2018). “The Brexit experience — evidence, expertise, and post-truth politics”. Journal & Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 151(1), 45-49.
• World Health Organization (2020). “Munich Security Conference”, https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/munich-security-conference (Accessed 03.10.2021).