Associations of Achilles Tendon and Plantar Fascia Viscoelastic Properties with Jumping Kinetics in Athletes

Abstract

Background: The Achilles tendon (AT) and plantar fascia (PF) play a central role in force transmission and elastic energy management during jumping. However, the relationships between their viscoelastic properties and the kinetic components of jumping are not well established. This study investigated the associations between AT and PF viscoelastic properties, foot characteristics, anthropometric variables, and jumping kinetics in athletes. Methods: Twenty-four athletes (13 men, 11 women; aged 18–25 years) competing in volleyball or basketball were included. AT and PF viscoelastic properties were assessed in relaxed and tensioned conditions using a handheld myotonometer. Participants performed right-leg unilateral and left-leg unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJ) and squat jumps (SJ) on a force platform. Concentric peak force, eccentric and concentric peak rate of force development (RFD), landing peak force, and landing peak RFD were calculated. Pearson correlation analyses were performed to examine the associations between tissue properties, anthropometric characteristics, and jumping kinetics. Results: During the right-leg unilateral CMJ, relaxed AT stiffness was positively associated with landing peak force (r = .468, p = .021) and landing peak RFD (r = .408, p = .048), whereas tensioned AT stiffness was positively associated with concentric peak RFD (r = .484, p = .017). PF decrement was negatively associated with concentric peak RFD (r = −.770, p < .001), while relaxed PF stiffness was positively associated with eccentric peak RFD (r = .425, p = .038). During the left-leg unilateral SJ, tensioned AT stiffness was negatively associated with concentric peak force (r = −.439, p = .036) and concentric peak RFD (r = −.451, p = .031). No significant associations between tissue properties and jumping kinetics were observed during the left-leg unilateral CMJ. Conclusion: AT and PF viscoelastic properties were associated with selected force and RFD-related variables, but these associations varied according to the tissue condition, extremity, and jump protocol. This pattern suggests that AT and PF properties may contribute more specifically to force transmission and rapid force development than to uniformly determine overall jumping performance.

Keywords

• Myotonometry
• rate of force development
• force platform
• landing mechanics
• foot-ankle complex

Sporcularda Aşil Tendonu ve Plantar Fasyanın Viskoelastik Özellikleri ile Sıçrama Kinetiği Arasındaki İlişki

Abstract

Amaç: Aşil tendonu (AT) ve plantar fasya (PF), sıçrama sırasında kuvvet iletimi ve elastik enerji yönetiminde merkezi bir rol oynar. Bununla birlikte, bu yapıların viskoelastik özellikleri ile sıçramanın kinetik bileşenleri arasındaki ilişkiler henüz tam olarak ortaya konmamıştır. Bu çalışmada sporcularda AT ve PF’nin viskoelastik özellikleri, ayak özellikleri, antropometrik değişkenler ve sıçrama kinetiği arasındaki ilişkiler incelenmiştir. Yöntem: Voleybol veya basketbol oynayan 24 sporcu (13 erkek, 11 kadın; yaş aralığı: 18–25 yıl) çalışmaya dâhil edilmiştir. AT ve PF’nin viskoelastik özellikleri, gevşek ve gergin pozisyonda miyotonometre kullanılarak değerlendirilmiştir. Katılımcılar, kuvvet platformu üzerinde sağ ve sol bacakla tek bacaklı countermovement jump (CMJ) ve squat jump (SJ) testlerini gerçekleştirmiştir. Konsantrik tepe kuvvet, eksantrik ve konsantrik tepe kuvvet gelişim hızı (RFD), iniş tepe kuvveti ve iniş tepe RFD değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Doku özellikleri, antropometrik özellikler ve sıçrama kinetiği arasındaki ilişkileri incelemek amacıyla Pearson korelasyon analizleri yapılmıştır. Bulgular: Sağ bacakla gerçekleştirilen tek bacaklı CMJ sırasında, gevşek durumdaki AT sertliği ile iniş tepe kuvveti (r = .468, p = .021) ve iniş tepe RFD (r = .408, p = .048) arasında pozitif ilişkiler bulunurken, gerilim altındaki AT sertliği ile konsantrik tepe RFD arasında pozitif ilişki saptanmıştır (r = .484, p = .017). PF decrement değeri konsantrik tepe RFD ile negatif yönde ilişkiliyken (r = −.770, p < .001), gevşek durumdaki PF sertliği eksantrik tepe RFD ile pozitif yönde ilişkili bulunmuştur (r = .425, p = .038). Sol bacakla gerçekleştirilen tek bacaklı SJ sırasında, gerilim altındaki AT sertliği ile konsantrik tepe kuvvet (r = −.439, p = .036) ve konsantrik tepe RFD (r = −.451, p = .031) arasında negatif ilişkiler saptanmıştır. Sol bacakla gerçekleştirilen tek bacaklı CMJ sırasında doku özellikleri ile sıçrama kinetiği arasında anlamlı bir ilişki gözlenmemiştir. Sonuç: AT ve PF’nin viskoelastik özellikleri, kuvvet ve RFD ile ilişkili belirli değişkenlerle ilişkili bulunmuştur; ancak bu ilişkiler dokunun değerlendirme koşuluna, ekstremiteye ve sıçrama protokolüne göre değişiklik göstermiştir. Bu patern, AT ve PF özelliklerinin genel sıçrama performansını tutarlı biçimde belirlemekten ziyade, kuvvet iletimi ve hızlı kuvvet gelişimine özgü katkı sağlayabileceğini düşündürmektedir.

Keywords

• Myotonometre
• kuvvet gelişim hızı
• kuvvet platformu
• iniş mekaniği
• ayak-ayak bileği kompleksi

References

1. Abdelsattar, M., Konrad, A., & Tilp, M. (2018). Relationship between Achilles tendon stiffness and ground contact time during drop jumps. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 17(2), 223–228. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29769823/
2. Aboelnasr, E. A., Hegazy, F. A., Zaghloul, A. A., El-Talawy, H. A., & Abdelazim, F. H. (2018). Validation of normalized truncated navicular height as a clinical assessment measure of static foot posture to determine flatfoot in children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study. The Foot, 37, 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foot.2018.05.001
3. Ando, R., Sato, S., Hirata, N., Tanimoto, H., Imaizumi, N., Suzuki, Y., Hirata, K., & Akagi, R. (2021). Relationship between resting medial gastrocnemius stiffness and drop jump performance. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 58, 102549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2021.102549
4. Arima, S., Maeda, N., Tsutsumi, S., Ishihara, H., Ikuta, Y., Ushio, K., Fujishita, H., Kobayashi, T., Komiya, M., Morikawa, M., Adachi, N., & Urabe, Y. (2023). Association of the intrinsic foot muscles and plantar fascia with repetitive rebound jumping and jump landing in adolescent athletes: An ultrasound-based study. Gait & Posture, 99, 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2022.11.003
5. Atamtürk, D. (2009). Relationship of flatfoot and high arch with main anthropometric variables. Acta Orthopaedica et Traumatologica Turcica, 43(3), 254–259. https://doi.org/10.3944/AOTT.2009.254
6. Aydoğ, S. T., Özçakar, L., Tetik, O., Demirel, H. A., Hasçelik, Z., & Doral, M. N. (2005). Relation between foot arch index and ankle strength in elite gymnasts: A preliminary study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(3), e13. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.011627
7. Bayliss, A., Weatherholt, A. M., Crandall, T. T., Farmer, D., McConnell, J., Crossley, K. M., & Warden, S. J. (2016). Achilles tendon material properties are greater in the jump leg of jumping athletes. Journal of Musculoskeletal & Neuronal Interactions, 16, 105–112. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27282454/
8. Bojsen-Møller, J., Magnusson, S. P., Rasmussen, L. R., Kjaer, M., & Aagaard, P. (2005). Muscle performance during maximal isometric and dynamic contractions is influenced by the stiffness of the tendinous structures. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99(3), 986–994. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01305.2004

9. Chang, T. T., Feng, Y. N., Zhu, Y., Liu, C. L., Wang, X. Q., & Zhang, Z. J. (2020). Objective assessment of regional stiffness in Achilles tendon in different ankle joint positions using the MyotonPRO. Medical Science Monitor, 26, e926407. https://doi.org/10.12659/MSM.926407
10. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Davidson, G., Pizzari, T., & Mayes, S. (2007). Reliability of measuring first and second metatarsal and toe length. The Foot, 17(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foot.2006.10.003
11. Davis, D., Bosley, E. B., Gronell, L. C., Keeney, S., Rossetti, A. M., Mancinelli, C., & Petronis, J. (2006). The relationship of body segment length and vertical jump displacement in recreational athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20, 136–140. https://doi.org/10.1519/R-16354.1
12. Fukashiro, S., Komi, P. V., Järvinen, M., & Miyashita, M. (1995). In vivo Achilles tendon loading during jumping in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 71(5), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00635880
13. Gervasi, M., Benelli, P., Venerandi, R., & Fernández-Peña, E. (2022). Relationship between muscle-tendon stiffness and drop jump performance in young male basketball players during developmental stages. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 17017. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192417017
14. Hawley, V. S., Gurchiek, R. D., & van Werkhoven, H. (2022). Can foot anthropometry predict vertical jump performance? Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(7), 1860–1865. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003733
15. International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry. (2001). ISAK manual: Anthropometric standardization reference manual. International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry.
16. Kablan, N., Can, M., Ayvacı, H., Gerçek, N., Eroğlu, Z. A., Özgit, B., & Tatar, Y. (2022). Biomechanical and viscoelastic properties of the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia in pregnant women with pelvic girdle pain: A case–control study. Women & Health, 62(6), 476–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2022.2085843
17. Konrad, A., & Paternoster, F. (2022). No association between jump parameters and tissue stiffness in the quadriceps and triceps surae muscles in recreationally active young adult males. Applied Sciences, 12, 1596. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031596
18. Krzysztofik, M., Wilk, M., Pisz, A., Kolinger, D., Bichowska, M., Zając, A., & Šťastný, P. (2022). Acute effects of high-load versus plyometric conditioning activity on jumping performance and the muscle-tendon mechanical properties. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 37, 1397–1403. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000004398
19. Kubo, K., Kawakami, Y., & Fukunaga, T. (1999). Influence of elastic properties of tendon structures on jump performance in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87(6), 2090–2096. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.6.2090
20. Kubo, K., Morimoto, M., Komuro, T., Tsunoda, N., Kanehisa, H., & Fukunaga, T. (2007). Influences of tendon stiffness, joint stiffness, and electromyographic activity on jump performances using a single joint. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-006-0338-y
21. Kurtoğlu, A., Çar, B., Eken, Ö., Demir, G., Türkmen, M., Setiawan, E., Alotaibi, M. H., & Elkholi, S. M. (2024). Pes planus level affects counter movement jump performance: A study on amateur male and female volleyball players. Medicine, 103(25), e38683. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000038683
22. LaPlaca, D. A., & Seedman, J. (2021). The importance of the foot and ankle in athletic performance. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 43, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000598
23. McMahon, J. J., Suchomel, T. J., Lake, J. P., & Comfort, P. (2018). Understanding the key phases of the countermovement jump force-time curve. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 40(4), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0000000000000375
24. Morikawa, M., Maeda, N., Komiya, M., Hirota, A., Mizuta, R., Kobayashi, T., Kaneda, K., Nishikawa, Y., & Urabe, Y. (2021). Contribution of plantar fascia and intrinsic foot muscles in a single-leg drop landing and repetitive rebound jumps: An ultrasound-based study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 4511. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094511
25. Moulodi, N., Kamyab, M., & Farzadi, M. (2019). A comparison of the hallux valgus angle, range of motion, and patient satisfaction after use of dynamic and static orthoses. The Foot, 41, 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foot.2019.06.002
26. Muckelt, P. E., Warner, M. B., Cheliotis-James, T., Muckelt, R., Hastermann, M., Schoenrock, B., Martin, D., MacGregor, R., Blottner, D., & Stokes, M. (2022). Protocol and reference values for minimal detectable change of MyotonPRO and ultrasound imaging measurements of muscle and subcutaneous tissue. Scientific Reports, 12, 13654. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17507-2
27. Ohi, H., Iijima, H., Aoyama, T., Kaneda, E., Ohi, K., & Abe, K. (2017). Association of frontal plane knee alignment with foot posture in patients with medial knee osteoarthritis. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 18, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-017-1588-z
28. Pan, W., Zhou, J., Lin, Y., Zhang, Z., & Wang, Y. (2021). Elasticity of the Achilles tendon in individuals with and without plantar fasciitis: A shear wave elastography study. Frontiers in Physiology, 12, 686631. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.686631
29. Pentidis, N., Mersmann, F., Böhm, S., Giannakou, E., Aggelousis, N., & Arampatzis, A. (2020). Effects of long-term athletic training on muscle morphology and tendon stiffness in preadolescence: Association with jump performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 120, 2715–2727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04490-7
30. Sakalauskaitė, R., & Satkunskienė, D. (2012). The foot arch and viscoelastic properties of plantar fascia and Achilles tendon. Journal of Vibroengineering, 14(4), 1751–1759.
31. Snook, A. G. (2001). The relationship between excessive pronation as measured by navicular drop and isokinetic strength of the ankle musculature. Foot & Ankle International, 22(3), 234–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/107110070102200311
32. Soontjens, O., Busner, J., & Fortin, M. (2026). Achilles tendon ultrasound-derived properties of the dominant and non-dominant jumping leg of university basketball athletes: Relation with performance, range of motion, and injury. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 8, 1753505. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2026.1753505
33. Stecco, C., Corradin, M., Macchi, V., Morra, A., Porzionato, A., Biz, C., & De Caro, R. (2013). Plantar fascia anatomy and its relationship with Achilles tendon and paratenon. Journal of Anatomy, 223(6), 665–676. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12111
34. Sudhakar, S., Kirthika, S. V., Padmanabhan, K., Kumar, G. M., Nathan, C. S., Gopika, R., & Samuel, A. J. (2018). Impact of various foot arches on dynamic balance and speed performance in collegiate short-distance runners: A cross-sectional comparative study. Journal of Orthopaedics, 15(1), 114–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jor.2018.01.050
35. Szymczyk, P., Węgrzynowicz, K., Trybulski, R., Spieszny, M., Ewertowska, P., Wilk, M., & Krzysztofik, M. (2022). Acute effects of percussive massage treatment on drop jump performance and Achilles tendon stiffness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), 15187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215187
36. Şahin, F. N., Ceylan, L., Küçük, H., Ceylan, T., Arıkan, G., Yiğit, S., Çetin Sarışık, D., & Güler, Ö. (2022). Examining the relationship between pes planus degree, balance and jump performances in athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(18), 11602. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811602
37. van Hooren, B., & Zolotarjova, J. (2017). The difference between countermovement and squat jump performances: A review of underlying mechanisms with practical applications. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(7), 2011–2020. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001913
38. Wdowski, M. M., Rosicka, K., & Hill, M. (2023). Influence of lower-limb muscular and tendon mechanical properties and strength on countermovement jump performance. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 63(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.22.13567-X
39. Williams, D. S., McClay, I. S., Hamill, J., & Buchanan, T. S. (2001). Lower extremity kinematic and kinetic differences in runners with high and low arches. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 17(2), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.17.2.153
40. Yamauchi, J., & Koyama, K. (2020). Importance of toe flexor strength in vertical jump performance. Journal of Biomechanics, 109, 109719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2020.109719
41. Yu, H., Wu, W., Tai, W., Li, J., & Zhang, R. (2024). The arch myth: Investigating the impact of flat foot on vertical jump height: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 16, 236. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-01018-w
42. Zhao, X., Tsujimoto, T., Kim, B., Katayama, Y., & Tanaka, K. (2018). Association of foot structure with the strength of muscles that move the ankle and physical performance. The Journal of Foot & Ankle Surgery, 57(6), 1143–1147. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jfas.2018.06.002