UAV-Based photogrammetric documentation and 3D modeling of a historical gate: accuracy assessment and heritage preservation perspectives
Abstract
This study presents the high-resolution 3D documentation of the Ala Kapı triumphal arch, a monumental Roman structure located in the ancient city of Anavarza, using UAV-based photogrammetry. A total of 285 high-resolution images—comprising both nadir and oblique views—were acquired with a DJI Phantom 4 Pro UAV at an average altitude of 25–30 meters. Ten Ground Control Points (GCPs) and eight independent Check Points (CPs) were measured using a dual-frequency GNSS receiver linked to a CORS network to ensure centimeter-level georeferencing. The photogrammetric workflow generated a dense point cloud of approximately 48 million points and a triangulated mesh with ~9.5 million faces. Bundle adjustment yielded RMSE values of 1.9 cm (X), 2.2 cm (Y), and 2.5 cm (Z) at GCPs, while the CP-based external validation indicated a total RMSE of 2.8 cm. The final 3D model demonstrated high geometric and visual fidelity, accurately reproducing fine architectural details such as arch intrados, column capitals, and eroded surface textures. The results confirm the effectiveness of UAV-based photogrammetry for cultural heritage documentation, achieving a relative accuracy of ~1.6× the ground sampling distance (GSD ≈ 1.8 cm/pixel). The dataset and reconstruction pipeline provide a reliable foundation for restoration planning, HBIM integration, and long-term structural monitoring. Methodologically, the study also addresses common photogrammetric challenges such as occlusion, shadowing, and texture scarcity through image redundancy and controlled acquisition geometry.
References
- Deliry, S. I., & Avdan, U. (2021). Accuracy of unmanned aerial systems photogrammetry and structure from motion in surveying and mapping: a review. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 49(8), 1997-2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-021-01366-x
- Fernández‐Hernandez, J., González‐Aguilera, D., Rodríguez‐Gonzálvez, P., & Mancera‐Taboada, J. (2015). Image‐based modelling from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry: an effective, low‐cost tool for archaeological applications. Archaeometry, 57(1), 128-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12078
- Giombini, L. (2024). Integrity in cultural heritage preservation: Unveiling the challenges. In The Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Architectural Reconstruction (pp. 33-51). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003334200-5
- Guo, Q., Liu, H., Hassan, F. M., Bhatt, M. W., & Buttar, A. M. (2022). Application of UAV tilt photogrammetry in 3D modeling of ancient buildings. International Journal of System Assurance Engineering and Management, 13(Suppl 1), 424-436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-021-01458-4
- Haddad, N. A., Fakhoury, L. A., & Sakr, Y. M. (2021). A critical anthology of international charters, conventions & principles on documentation of cultural heritage for conservation, monitoring & management. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 21(1), 291-291. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4575718
- Kabadayı, A., & Türker, S. S. M. (2025). Dijital Koruma Yöntemleriyle Mimari Miras: Eski Şefaatli Camii’nin Fotogrametri Tabanlı Modellemesi. Türkiye Fotogrametri Dergisi, 7(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.53030/tufod.1715363
- Kaya, Y., & Temel, D. (2022). Cep telefonu kameralarından elde edilen görüntüler ile kültürel miras eserlerinin modellenmesi. Türkiye Fotogrametri Dergisi, 4(1), 17-22. https://doi.org/10.53030/tufod.1101427
- Nikolakopoulos, K. G., Soura, K., Koukouvelas, I. K., & Argyropoulos, N. G. (2017). UAV vs classical aerial photogrammetry for archaeological studies. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 14, 758-773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.09.004
- Pajares, G. (2015). Overview and current status of remote sensing applications based on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 81(4), 281-330. https://doi.org/10.14358/PERS.81.4.281
- Remondino, F. (2011). Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning. Remote sensing, 3(6), 1104-1138. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3061104
- Sullivan, A. M. (2015). Cultural heritage & new media: a future for the past. J. Marshall Rev. Intell. Prop. L., 15, 604. Uzeler, A., & Doğan, R. (2024). Adana Olgunlaşma Enstitüsü Tasarımlarında Anavarza Antik Kenti Yansımaları. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 33(2), 657-668. https://doi.org/10.35379/cusosbil.1437064
- Wirilander, H. (2012). Preventive conservation: a key method to ensure cultural heritage’s authenticity and integrity in preservation process. E-conservation Magazine, (24).
- Xiang, T. Z., Xia, G. S., & Zhang, L. (2019). Mini-unmanned aerial vehicle-based remote sensing: Techniques, applications, and prospects. IEEE geoscience and remote sensing magazine, 7(3), 29-63. https://doi.org/10.1109/MGRS.2019.2918840
- Yiğit, A. Y., & Şenol, H. İ. (2025). Surface Change and Stability Analysis in Open-Pit Mines Using UAV Photogrammetric Data and Geospatial Analysis. Drones, 9(7), 472. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones9070472
- Zakaria, M. H., Fawzy, H., El-Beshbeshy, M., & Farhan, M. (2025). A Comparative Study of Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry: Accuracy and Applications. Civil Engineering Journal, 11(03). https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2025-011-03-021
- Zhang, C., & Maga, A. M. (2023). An open-source photogrammetry workflow for reconstructing 3D models. Integrative Organismal Biology, 5(1), obad024. https://doi.org/10.1093/iob/obad024
Details
| Primary Language | English |
|---|---|
| Subjects | Photogrametry |
| Journal Section | Research Article |
| Authors | |
| Submission Date | September 16, 2025 |
| Acceptance Date | September 29, 2025 |
| Early Pub Date | December 26, 2025 |
| Publication Date | December 29, 2025 |
| Published in Issue | Year 2025 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 |
Aim & Scope
The Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research (MJESR), abbreviated as Mediterr. J. Eng. Sci. Res, aims to provide a dynamic and high-quality platform for the dissemination of original research findings, innovative methodologies, and interdisciplinary studies across engineering and scientific fields. The journal is committed to promoting academic excellence, encouraging cross-disciplinary collaboration, and advancing scientific knowledge and technological development at both regional and global levels. Through a rigorous double-blind peer review process and an open access policy, MJESR aspires to become a trusted and influential resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers addressing contemporary scientific and engineering challenges.
The Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research (MJESR), abbreviated as Mediterr. J. Eng. Sci. Res, publishes original research articles, review papers, and technical communications in the following areas:
1. Engineering Sciences
- Civil Engineering: Structural analysis, geotechnical engineering, transportation systems, construction management.
- Mechanical Engineering: Thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing processes, mechatronics.
- Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Power systems, control engineering, signal processing, embedded systems.
- Chemical and Process Engineering: Reaction engineering, process design, materials synthesis, industrial applications.
- Computer and Software Engineering: Machine learning, artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, software systems, data science.
- Energy Engineering: Renewable energy technologies, energy storage, smart grids, sustainability in energy systems.
2. Natural and Applied Sciences
- Physics and Applied Physics: Material physics, quantum mechanics, photonics, computational physics.
- Chemistry and Applied Chemistry: Analytical chemistry, polymer science, nanotechnology applications.
- Biological Sciences: Biotechnology, bioengineering, environmental biology, health-related applications of engineering.
- Earth and Environmental Sciences: Geology, geophysics, hydrology, environmental monitoring, climate change studies.
- Materials Science and Engineering: Advanced materials, composites, biomaterials, nanomaterials.
- Mathematical and Computational Sciences: Applied mathematics, computational mathematics, mathematical modeling, numerical analysis, optimization techniques, statistical methods, data analysis, scientific computing.
3. Interdisciplinary and Emerging Fields
- Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Applications in Engineering and Sciences
- Smart Cities, Urban Technologies, and Sustainable Infrastructure
- Remote Sensing, Geospatial Analysis, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
- Biomedical Engineering and Health Technologies
- Environmental Sustainability, Disaster Risk Management, and Resilient Systems
- Innovation Management, Engineering Economics, and Technology Policy
MJESR encourages submissions that emphasize novel methodologies, interdisciplinary approaches, real-world applications, and solutions to contemporary scientific and engineering challenges. All manuscripts undergo a rigorous double-blind peer-review process to ensure the highest standards of academic quality and originality.
Author Guidelines
Author Guidelines
For Authors;
Articles submitted to the journal should be studies with the following characteristics:
*Research studies containing original scientific findings,
*Studies that convey application examples with a scientific approach,
*It should be in the form of review studies that comprehensively evaluate significant developments on a particular subject.
Uploading the Article to the System;
Articles should be uploaded electronically to the system at https://dergipark.org.tr/en/journal/3138/submission/start
You can use a template file that follows the writing guidelines as a guide when you write your article. Please click the file below to view a template article.
Files Waiting to be Sent with the Article
Copyright Form & Ethics Committee Declaration (Combined in a single document):
Link: "Copyright Form & Ethics Committee Declaration Form"
*All submitted manuscripts will automatically undergo a plagiarism check via the intihal.net system during the upload process.*Authors do not need to upload a plagiarism report manually, as the system will generate it automatically during submission.
*However, if authors prefer to upload their own plagiarism report, they may do so in addition to the automatic check.
Ethical Principles and Publication Policy
The Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research (MJESR), is committed to upholding the highest ethical standards in the publication of scientific research. Our ethical principles and publication policies are aligned with internationally recognized guidelines provided by organizations such as the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME), the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), and the Declaration of Helsinki. We are dedicated to ensuring that all published research adheres to the ethical standards expected by the global scientific community.
1. Ethical Responsibilities of Authors
Authors submitting to Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research are expected to:
- Ensure that their work is original, free of plagiarism, and has not been published elsewhere.
- Provide accurate and honest reporting of their research, including proper attribution of all sources.
- Disclose any potential conflicts of interest that may affect the integrity of the research.
- Obtain necessary ethical approvals for studies involving human or animal subjects, as per the Declaration of Helsinki guidelines.
- Adhere to best practices in data management, ensuring that all research data is handled responsibly and made available upon request for verification.
2. Ethical Responsibilities of Editors
Editors of MJESR are responsible for:
- Impartial Evaluation: All submitted manuscripts are evaluated based on their academic merit, without regard to the authors' personal characteristics such as race, gender, religious beliefs, or political views.
- Confidentiality: Editors must ensure that all manuscripts remain confidential and are shared only with those directly involved in the publication process.
- Final Decision Making: While referees’ reports are crucial to the review process, the final decision on whether to accept or reject a manuscript rests with the Editor-in-Chief, in line with the ethical standards set by COPE.
- Addressing Ethical Concerns: Editors must act on any allegations of misconduct such as plagiarism or falsification of data, following COPE guidelines for investigation and resolution.
3. Ethical Responsibilities of Reviewers
Peer reviewers play a critical role in maintaining the quality and integrity of the journal. Reviewers are expected to:
- Provide Objective Reviews: Evaluate manuscripts objectively and constructively, without personal bias.
- Maintain Confidentiality: Treat all manuscripts as confidential documents and refrain from disclosing information to third parties.
- Declare Conflicts of Interest: Inform the editorial office of any potential conflicts of interest that might influence their review, whether financial, professional, or personal.
4. Publication Integrity
Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research is committed to maintaining the integrity of the publication process through the following practices:
- Corrections and Retractions: If a significant error or ethical violation is discovered after publication, the journal will issue a correction or retract the article, according to COPE guidelines.
- Conflict of Interest Disclosure: Authors, editors, and reviewers are required to disclose any conflicts of interest that might affect the research, review, or editorial decision processes.
- Open Access Policy: MJESR The journal supports open access to all published articles, ensuring free and unrestricted access to scientific knowledge in accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative.
5. Research Involving Human and Animal Subjects
For studies involving human participants or animals, MJESR follows the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant regulatory guidelines. Researchers must ensure:
- Ethical approvals are obtained from the appropriate ethics committees or institutional review boards.
- Informed consent is obtained from human participants prior to data collection.
- Humane treatment of animals is ensured, adhering to recognized ethical standards.
Ethics Committee Approval
An Ethics Committee Approval document must be submitted for the publication application of articles that require ethics committee approval.
Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research has been checking the ethical committee approval status of articles submitted. In this context, if your study falls into a category that requires ethical committee approval, you must upload the permission document along with your article files. Studies submitted to the journal that require ethical committee approval but lack the necessary permission documents will not be considered for evaluation.
Publication Policy
Publication Frequency:
- Mediterranean Journal of Engineering and Scientific Research is a peer-reviewed journal published annually in March and September.
Publication Fee
- MJESR does not charge any fees for the assessment/publishing processes of the submitted manuscripts.
Price Policy
Journal Boards
Editor-in-Chief
Editor
Co-Editors
Section Editor
Aktif araştırma alanları; Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi (CBS) ve Uzaktan Algılama (UA) tekniklerini kullanarak; yeraltı sularının kirlenmeye karşı hassasiyetinin ve potansiyelinin değerlendirilmesi, yer seçimi, çeşitli coğrafi unsurlara ait morfometrik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi, arazi kullanımına ait zamansal değişimlerin, yüzey sıcaklığının ve bitki örtüsünün haritalanması ve belirlenmesi konularını içermektedir.
Caner Ozdemir received the B.S.E.E. degree in 1992 from the Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey, and the M.S.E. and Ph. D. degrees in Electrical & Computer Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1995 and 1998, respectively.
From 1992 to 1993, he worked as a project engineer at the Electronic Warfare Programs Directorate of ASELSAN Electronic Industries Inc., Ankara, Turkey. From 1998 to 2000, he worked as a research scientist at Electronic & Avionics Systems (ASTG) group of AlliedSignal Inc., Columbia, Maryland. He joined the faculty of Mersin University in 2000 and is currently a professor in the department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Mersin, Turkey. He has been serving as a consultant to the Marmara Research Center of the Scientific and Research Council (TUBITAK) of Turkey and many defense industry firms. Dr. Ozdemir’s research interests are radar cross section, radar image/signal processing, inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR), radar cross section, ground penetrating radar, through-the-wall imaging radar and antenna design. He has published more than 180 journal articles and conference/symposium papers on these subjects.
Dr. Ozdemir is a recipient of URSI EMT-S Young Scientist Award in the 2004 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Theory in Pisa, Italy and also recipient of a JARS best paper award for photo-optical instrumentation published in the Journal of Applied Remote Sensing in 2016. He is the author of the book titled “Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging with Matlab Algorithms”.
nanometarial, silica aerogel, carbon nanotube, graphene, high entropy alloy
Editorial Board
-
