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Apartheid Suçları ve Etnik Ayrımcılık: İsrail Örneği

Yıl 2024, , 853 - 880, 15.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.56720/mevzu.1517061

Öz

İsrail’in 7 Ekim 2023 tarihinde gerçekleşen Aksa Tufanı Operasyonu’na verdiği karşılık, soykırım suçları kapsamında değerlendirilebilecek uygula-malar ve müsebbibi olduğu katliamlar sonucunda apartheid rejimi kavramı dünya genelinde ciddi bir biçimde tartışılır hale geldi. Bu makalenin amacı uluslararası sözleşmeler ışığında apartheid suçu ve bu suçun temelini oluş-turan ırksal ayrımcılığın kökenlerini İsrail örneği üzerinden incelemektir. Öncelikle sosyal psikoloji alanında yapılan çalışmalar göz önünde bulundu-rulduğunda etnik kimliğe dayalı gruplaşmaların özünde maksimum fayda-dan ziyade diğer grupla maksimum ayrışmanın ön plana çıktığı görülmek-tedir. Elde edilen bulgular İsrail-Filistin meselesi özelinde incelendiğinde İs-rail’in ‘makbul Yahudi’ kimliğini teşvik ettiği ve bu kimliğin dışında kalan tüm etnik gruplara ayrımcılık uyguladığı anlaşılmaktadır. İsrail’de uygula-nan etnik ayrımcılığa sadece Filistinliler değil, Afrika ve Sefarad Yahudileri de muhatap olmuştur. Başta Birleşmiş Milletler olmak üzere uluslararası kurum ve kuruluşların hazırladığı raporlar ve kararlar ışığında Filistin’e uygulanan ayrımcılık incelendiğinde, Filistinlilerin İsrail anayasasına yer-leşmiş sistematik bir ayrımcılığın muhatabı olduğu görülmektedir. Filistinli-ler, İsrail’de yaşayan İsrail vatandaşları, Doğu Kudüs’te yaşayan süresiz oturuma sahip Filistinliler ve işgal altında Batı Şeria ve Gazze’de yaşam mücadelesi veren Filistinliler olarak üç farklı nüfuz bölgesinde çeşitli düzey-lerde apartheid rejimine muhatap olmaktadırlar. Bilhassa Doğu Kudüs, Batı Şeria ve Gazze’de yaşayan Filistinliler uluslararası sözleşmelerde apartheid suçları olarak tanımlanan suçların neredeyse tamamına maruz kalmaktadır-lar. İsrail’in uyguladığı toprak politikası, Yahudiler ve Filistinliler olarak özetlenebilecek iki yapılı hukuk sistemi ve Filistinlileri bölmeye ve sürgün etmeye odaklı çeşitli işgal politikaları apartheid suçlarının ana omurgasını oluşturmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • AI, Amnesty International. Israel’s apartheid against Palestinians: A cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity. Londra: Amnesty International Ltd, 2022.
  • Akal, Cemal Baki, Modern Düşüncenin Doğuşu (İspanyol Altın Çağı). Ankara: Dost Kitabevi, 2023.
  • Aksünger, Selman – Demirci, Zuhal. ''Uluslararası Adalet Divanı: İsrail, Gazze'de işgalci güç konumundadır''. Anadolu Ajansı (17 Temmuz 2024). https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/uluslararasi-adalet-divani-israil- gazzede-isgalci-guc-konumundadir/3279968
  • Albanese, Francesca. Anatomy of a Genocide. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2024.
  • Aljazeera. ''Timeline: Israel’s attacks on Gaza since 2005' (7 Ağustos 2022) https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/7/timeline-israels-attacks-on-gaza-since-2005
  • Anera. ''What are Area A, Area B, and Area C in the West Bank?'' (15 Temmuz 2024) https://www.anera.org/what-are-area-a-area-b-and-area-c-in-the-west-bank/
  • Barth, F. (ed.). Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of culture difference; [essays presents the results of a symposium held at the University of Bergen, 23rd to 26th February 1967. Illinois: Waveland Press, 1998.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletller. Her Türlü Irk Ayrımcılığının Ortadan Kaldırılmasına İlişkin Uluslararası Sözleşme. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1969.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Apartheid Suçunun Engellenmesi ve Cezalandırılmasına İlişkin Uluslararası Sözleşme. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1976.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Roma: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1998.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the Palestinian Territories Occupied Since 1967. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2022.
  • BM-OCHA Birleşmiş Milletler. Occupied Palestinian territory West Bank: Area C Map. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2011.
  • Brubaker, Rogers. ''Ethnicity, Race, and Nationalism''. Annual Review of Sociology 35/2 (2009), 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115916
  • Brunstetter, D. R., - Zartner, D.. ''Just War against Barbarians: Revisiting the Valladolid Debates between Sepúlveda and Las Casas''. Political Studies, 59/3 (2011), 733–752. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9248.2010.00857.x
  • Chandra, K. (ed.). Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012 https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199893157.001.0001
  • Yerday, Efrat. ''They Didn’t Want Ethiopian Jews in Israel, Either''. Haaretz (1 Şubat 2018). https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2018-02-01/ty-article-opinion/.premium/they-didnt-want-ethiopian- jews-in-israel-either/0000017f-db43-df9c-a17f-ff5b895d0000
  • Falks, Richard - Tilley, Virginia. Israeli Practices towards the Palestinian People and the Question of Apartheid. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2017.
  • Gantus, Layla. The Many Civil and Human Rights Challenges Facing Israel’s Palestinian Citizens. Washington Dc.: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2024.
  • Hareuveni, Eyal. State Business: Israel’s misappropriation of land in the West Bank through settler violence. Jerusalem: B’Tselem, 2021.
  • Horowitz, D. L. Ethnic groups in conflict. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1985.
  • HRW, Human Rigths Watch. Israel: Discriminatory Land Policies Hem in Palestinians. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2020.
  • HRW, Human Rigths Watch. A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2022.
  • ICG, International Crises Group. Reversing Israel’s Deepening Annexation of Occupied East Jerusalem. Brussels: International Crises Group, 2019.
  • BL, Basic-Law: Israel—The Nation State of the Jewish People. İsrail: Knesset, 2018. 15 Temmuz 2024. https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/documents/BasicLawsPDF/BasicLawNationState.pdf
  • Fakih, Lama - Shakir, Omar. ''Opinion: Does Israel’s treatment of Palestinians rise to the level of apartheid?'' Los Angelas Times (5 Aralık 2023). https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2023-12-05/apartheid-israel- palestinians-gaza-west-bank-international-law
  • Karatay, Murat. Yahudi Uluslaşma Sürecinde Öteki Kavramı ve Mizrahi Yahudileri. Sivas: Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans tezi, 2019. https://acikerisim.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12418/12443/10281223.pdf? sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  • Khatip, Rasha & Mckee, Martin & Yusuf, Salim. ''Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential''. Correspondence, 404/10449 (2024), 237-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01169-3
  • Sayegh, Nadine. ''Racism: In Israel some Jews are more equal than others''. TRT World (15 Temmuz 2019). https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/racism-in-israel-some-jews-are-more-equal-than-others-28109
  • Peacenow, Peacenow. (2018). State Land Allocation in the West Bank—For Israelis Only. Jerusalem: Peacenow, 2018.
  • Robinson, Kali. ''What to Know About the Arab Citizens of Israel''. Council on Foreign Relations (26 Ekim 2023) https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-know-about-arab-citizens-israel
  • Rouhana, Nadim. ''Israel and Its Arab Citizens: Predicaments in the Relationship between Ethnic States and Ethnonational Minorities''. Third World Quarterly, 19/2 (1998), 277–296, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436599814460.
  • Shafir, Gershon. ''From Overt to Veiled Segregation: Israel's Palestinian Arab Citizens in the Galilee''. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 50/1 (2018), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743817000915
  • Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. ''The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior''. Psychology of Intergroup Relations. ed. ed. Austin, William G. - Stephen Worchel. 7–24. IL: Nelson-Hall, 1986.
  • Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. ''An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict''. In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. ed. Austin, William G. - Stephen Worchel. 33–37. CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979.
  • Topuz, Zuhal Çalık – Arafat, Mohammed. ''Birleşmiş Milletler Güvenlik Konseyini Kararlarının Filistin-İsrail Barış Sürecine Etkisi''. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 78/2 (2023), 357–380. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.1065955
  • Yaniv, Omer - Haddad, Netta - Shapira, Yasir Assaf. Jerusalem – Facts and Trends 2022: The State of the City and Changing Trends. The Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research, 2022.
  • Yiğit, Muhammet Ali. ''İsrail’de Yahudi ulus devlet yasası kabul edildi''. Anadolu Ajansı (19 Temmuz 2018). https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/info/infografik/10843

Apartheid Crimes and Ethnic Discrimination: The Case of Israel

Yıl 2024, , 853 - 880, 15.09.2024
https://doi.org/10.56720/mevzu.1517061

Öz

Israel's response to the Operation Al-Aqsa Flood on October 7, 2023, which includes practices that could be considered genocide and massacres, has led to serious global debates on the concept of apartheid regime. This article examines the origins of racial discrimination, which forms the back-bone of the apartheid crime, considering international conventions. Initially, considering the studies in the field of social psychology, it was understood that ethnic-based groupings are more about maximizing the distinction from other groups rather than maximum benefit. When the findings are exam-ined specifically in the context of the Israel-Palestine issue, it is understood that Israel promotes the identity of the 'accepted Jew' and discriminates against all other ethnic groups outside of this identity. Not only Palestinian Arabs but also Jews of African and Middle Eastern origin have been sub-jected to ethnic discrimination in Israel. In light of the reports prepared by international institutions and organizations, especially the United Nations, when the discrimination against Palestinians is examined, it is seen that Pal-estinians are subjected to systematic discrimination enshrined in the Israeli constitution. Palestinians face various levels of apartheid regime in three different spheres of influence: Palestinian citizens living in Israel, Palestini-ans with permanent residency living in East Jerusalem, and Palestinians struggling to live in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Especially Palestini-ans living in East Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza are subjected to al-most all the crimes defined as apartheid crimes in international conventions. Israel's land policy, the dual legal system that can be summarized as Jews and non-Jews, and various occupation policies focused on dividing and exil-ing Palestinians constitute the main backbone of apartheid crimes.

Kaynakça

  • AI, Amnesty International. Israel’s apartheid against Palestinians: A cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity. Londra: Amnesty International Ltd, 2022.
  • Akal, Cemal Baki, Modern Düşüncenin Doğuşu (İspanyol Altın Çağı). Ankara: Dost Kitabevi, 2023.
  • Aksünger, Selman – Demirci, Zuhal. ''Uluslararası Adalet Divanı: İsrail, Gazze'de işgalci güç konumundadır''. Anadolu Ajansı (17 Temmuz 2024). https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/uluslararasi-adalet-divani-israil- gazzede-isgalci-guc-konumundadir/3279968
  • Albanese, Francesca. Anatomy of a Genocide. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2024.
  • Aljazeera. ''Timeline: Israel’s attacks on Gaza since 2005' (7 Ağustos 2022) https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/7/timeline-israels-attacks-on-gaza-since-2005
  • Anera. ''What are Area A, Area B, and Area C in the West Bank?'' (15 Temmuz 2024) https://www.anera.org/what-are-area-a-area-b-and-area-c-in-the-west-bank/
  • Barth, F. (ed.). Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of culture difference; [essays presents the results of a symposium held at the University of Bergen, 23rd to 26th February 1967. Illinois: Waveland Press, 1998.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletller. Her Türlü Irk Ayrımcılığının Ortadan Kaldırılmasına İlişkin Uluslararası Sözleşme. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1969.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Apartheid Suçunun Engellenmesi ve Cezalandırılmasına İlişkin Uluslararası Sözleşme. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1976.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Roma: Birleşmiş Milletler, 1998.
  • BM, Birleşmiş Milletler. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the Palestinian Territories Occupied Since 1967. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2022.
  • BM-OCHA Birleşmiş Milletler. Occupied Palestinian territory West Bank: Area C Map. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2011.
  • Brubaker, Rogers. ''Ethnicity, Race, and Nationalism''. Annual Review of Sociology 35/2 (2009), 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115916
  • Brunstetter, D. R., - Zartner, D.. ''Just War against Barbarians: Revisiting the Valladolid Debates between Sepúlveda and Las Casas''. Political Studies, 59/3 (2011), 733–752. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9248.2010.00857.x
  • Chandra, K. (ed.). Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012 https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199893157.001.0001
  • Yerday, Efrat. ''They Didn’t Want Ethiopian Jews in Israel, Either''. Haaretz (1 Şubat 2018). https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/2018-02-01/ty-article-opinion/.premium/they-didnt-want-ethiopian- jews-in-israel-either/0000017f-db43-df9c-a17f-ff5b895d0000
  • Falks, Richard - Tilley, Virginia. Israeli Practices towards the Palestinian People and the Question of Apartheid. Cenevre: Birleşmiş Milletler, 2017.
  • Gantus, Layla. The Many Civil and Human Rights Challenges Facing Israel’s Palestinian Citizens. Washington Dc.: The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2024.
  • Hareuveni, Eyal. State Business: Israel’s misappropriation of land in the West Bank through settler violence. Jerusalem: B’Tselem, 2021.
  • Horowitz, D. L. Ethnic groups in conflict. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1985.
  • HRW, Human Rigths Watch. Israel: Discriminatory Land Policies Hem in Palestinians. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2020.
  • HRW, Human Rigths Watch. A Threshold Crossed Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2022.
  • ICG, International Crises Group. Reversing Israel’s Deepening Annexation of Occupied East Jerusalem. Brussels: International Crises Group, 2019.
  • BL, Basic-Law: Israel—The Nation State of the Jewish People. İsrail: Knesset, 2018. 15 Temmuz 2024. https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/activity/documents/BasicLawsPDF/BasicLawNationState.pdf
  • Fakih, Lama - Shakir, Omar. ''Opinion: Does Israel’s treatment of Palestinians rise to the level of apartheid?'' Los Angelas Times (5 Aralık 2023). https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2023-12-05/apartheid-israel- palestinians-gaza-west-bank-international-law
  • Karatay, Murat. Yahudi Uluslaşma Sürecinde Öteki Kavramı ve Mizrahi Yahudileri. Sivas: Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans tezi, 2019. https://acikerisim.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12418/12443/10281223.pdf? sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  • Khatip, Rasha & Mckee, Martin & Yusuf, Salim. ''Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential''. Correspondence, 404/10449 (2024), 237-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01169-3
  • Sayegh, Nadine. ''Racism: In Israel some Jews are more equal than others''. TRT World (15 Temmuz 2019). https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/racism-in-israel-some-jews-are-more-equal-than-others-28109
  • Peacenow, Peacenow. (2018). State Land Allocation in the West Bank—For Israelis Only. Jerusalem: Peacenow, 2018.
  • Robinson, Kali. ''What to Know About the Arab Citizens of Israel''. Council on Foreign Relations (26 Ekim 2023) https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-know-about-arab-citizens-israel
  • Rouhana, Nadim. ''Israel and Its Arab Citizens: Predicaments in the Relationship between Ethnic States and Ethnonational Minorities''. Third World Quarterly, 19/2 (1998), 277–296, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436599814460.
  • Shafir, Gershon. ''From Overt to Veiled Segregation: Israel's Palestinian Arab Citizens in the Galilee''. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 50/1 (2018), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743817000915
  • Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. ''The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior''. Psychology of Intergroup Relations. ed. ed. Austin, William G. - Stephen Worchel. 7–24. IL: Nelson-Hall, 1986.
  • Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. ''An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict''. In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. ed. Austin, William G. - Stephen Worchel. 33–37. CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979.
  • Topuz, Zuhal Çalık – Arafat, Mohammed. ''Birleşmiş Milletler Güvenlik Konseyini Kararlarının Filistin-İsrail Barış Sürecine Etkisi''. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 78/2 (2023), 357–380. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.1065955
  • Yaniv, Omer - Haddad, Netta - Shapira, Yasir Assaf. Jerusalem – Facts and Trends 2022: The State of the City and Changing Trends. The Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research Jerusalem: Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research, 2022.
  • Yiğit, Muhammet Ali. ''İsrail’de Yahudi ulus devlet yasası kabul edildi''. Anadolu Ajansı (19 Temmuz 2018). https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/info/infografik/10843
Toplam 37 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Savaş Çalışmaları
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Ayhan Sarı 0000-0002-8752-7205

Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Eylül 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 16 Temmuz 2024
Kabul Tarihi 5 Eylül 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024

Kaynak Göster

ISNAD Sarı, Ayhan. “Apartheid Suçları Ve Etnik Ayrımcılık: İsrail Örneği”. Mevzu – Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 12 (Eylül 2024), 853-880. https://doi.org/10.56720/mevzu.1517061.

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