Kardiyovasküler risk faktörleri

Abstract

Aterosklerotik kardiyovasküler hastalıklar en önde gelen ölüm sebepleri arasında yer almaktadır. Ateroskleroz sürecinde kardiyovasküler risk faktörleri önemli rol oynamaktadır. Risk faktörleri azaldıkça hem kardiyovasküler olaylar hem de tüm sebeplerden mortalite azalmaktadır. Bu yazıda, geleneksel ve yeni kardiyovasküler risk faktörleri güncel literatür bilgisi ışığında gözden geçirilmiştir. Cardiovascular risk factors Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases are among the leading causes of death. Cardiovascular risk factors play an important role in the atherosclerotic process. As risk factors decrease, both cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality decrease. In this article, conventional and new risk factors were reviewed in the light of current literatures. J. Exp. Clin. Med., 2012; 29: S107-S116

Keywords

• Ateroskleroz
• Kardiyovasküler
• Risk faktörleri
• Mortalite
• Komplikasyon

References

1. Al-Hamodi, Z., Ismail, I.S., Saif-Ali, R., Ahmed, K.A., Muniandy, S., 2011. Association of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and tissue plasmi- nogen activator with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in Malaysian subjects. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 10, 23.
2. Allender, S., Scarborough, P., Peto, V., Rayner, M., Leal, J., Luengo-Fernandez, R., Gray, A., 2008. European cardiovascular disease statistics, 2008 ed. European Heart Network.
3. Assmann, G., Cullen, P., Schulte, H., 2002. Simple scoring scheme for calculating the risk of acute coronary events based on the 10-year follow- up of the prospective cardiovascular Münster (P.R.O.C.A.M.) study. Circulation. 105, 310-315.
4. Barua, R.S., Ambrose, J.A., Srivastava, S., DeVoe, M.C., Eales-Reynolds, L.J., 2003. Reactive oxygen species are involved in smoking-induced dysfunction of nitric oxide biosynthesis and upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase: An in vitro demonstration in human coronary artery endothelial cells. Circulation. 107, 2342-2347.
5. Bazzano, L.A., He, J., Muntner, P., Vupputuri, S., Whelton, P.K., 2003. Relationship between cigarette smoking and novel risk factors for car- diovascular disease in the United States. Ann. Intern. Med. 138, 891-897.
6. Boekholdt, S.M., Hack, C.E., Sandhu, M.S., Luben, R., Bingham, S.A., Wareham, N.J., Peters, R.J., Jukema, J.W., Day, N.E., Kastelein, J.J., Khaw, K.T., 2006. C-reactive protein levels and coronary artery disease incidence and mortality in apparently healthy men and women: The EPIC-Norfolk prospective population study 1993-2003. Atherosclerosis. 187, 415-422.
7. Brewer, H.B.Jr., 2004. Increasing HDL cholesterol levels. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 1491-1494.
8. Budoff, M.J., Gul, K.M., 2008. Expert review on coronary calcium. Vasc. Health Risk Manag. 4, 315-324.

9. Chobanian, A.V., Bakris, G.L., Black, H.R., Cushman, W.C., Green, L.A., Izzo, J.L.Jr., Jones, D.W., Materson, B.J., Oparil, S., Wright, J.T.Jr., Roccella, E.J., 2003. National heart, lung, and blood institute joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure; national high blood pressure education program coordinating committee. The seventh report of the joint national com- mittee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: The jnc 7 report. JAMA. 289, 2560-2572.
10. Choudhury, R.P., Fuster, V., Badimon, J.J., Fisher, E.A., Fayad, Z.A., 2002. MRI and characterization of atherosclerotic plaque: Emerging ap- plications and molecular imaging. Arterioscl. Throm. Vas. Biol. 22, 1065-1074.
11. Clarke, R., Halsey, J., Lewington, S., Lonn, E., Armitage, J., Manson, J.E., Bİnaa, K.H., Spence, J.D., Nygård, O., Jamison, R., Gaziano, J.M., Guarino, P., Bennett, D., Mir, F., Peto, R., Collins, R., 2010. B-Vitamin treatment trialists' collaboration. Effects of lowering homocysteine levels with B vitamins on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause-specific mortality: Meta-analysis of 8 randomized trials involving 37 485 individuals. Arch. Intern. Med. 170, 1622-1631.
12. Cohen, M., Diez, J., Fry, E., Rao, S.V., Ferguson, J.J.3rd., Zidar, J., Levine, G., Shani, J., 2006. Strategies for optimizing outcomes in the NSTE- ACS patient The CATH (cardiac catheterization and antithrombotic therapy in the hospital) Clinical consensus panel report. J. Invasive Cardiol. 18, 617-639.
13. Collins, R., MacMahon, S., 1994. Blood pressure, antihypertensive drug treatment and the risks of stroke and of coronary heart disease. Br. Med. Bull. 50, 272-298.
14. Conroy, R.M., Pyörälä, K., Fitzgerald, A.P., Sans, S., Menotti, A., De Backer, G., De Bacquer, D., Ducimetière, P., Jousilahti, P., Keil, U., Njİl- stad, I., Oganov, R.G., Thomsen, T., Tunstall-Pedoe, H., Tverdal, A., Wedel, H., Whincup, P., Wilhelmsen, L., Graham, I.M., 2003. SCORE project group. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: The SCORE project. Eur. Heart J. 24, 987-1003.
15. Costanzo, P., Perrone-Filardi, P., Vassallo, E., Paolillo, S., Cesarano, P., Brevetti, G., Chiariello, M., 2010. Does carotid intima-media thickness regression predict reduction of cardiovascular events? A meta-analysis of 41 randomized trials. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 56, 2006-2020.
16. Critchley, J.A., Capewell, S., 2003. Mortality risk reduction associated with smoking cessation in patients with coronary heart disease: A sys- tematic review. JAMA. 290, 86-97.
17. Crouse, J.R.3rd., Raichlen, J.S., Riley, W.A., Evans, G.W., Palmer, M.K., O'Leary, D.H., Grobbee, D.E., Bots, M.L., 2007. METEOR Study Group. Effect of rosuvastatin on progression of carotid intima-media thickness in low-risk individuals with subclinical atherosclerosis: The METEOR Trial. JAMA. 297, 1344-1353.
18. D'Agostino, R.B.Sr., Grundy, S., Sullivan, L.M., Wilson, P., 2001. CHD Risk Prediction Group. Validation of the Framingham coronary heart disease prediction scores: Results of a multiple ethnic groups investigation. JAMA. 286, 180-187.
19. Danesh, J., Collins, R., Peto, R., 2000. Lipoprotein(a) and coronary heart disease. Meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation. 102, 1082- 1085.
20. De Fronzo, R.A., Abdul-Ghani, M., 2011. Assessment and treatment of cardiovascular risk in prediabetes: Impaired glucose tolerance and im- paired fasting glucose. Am. J. Cardiol. 108, 3-24.
21. Della-Morte, D., Beecham, A., Rundek, T., Slifer, S., Boden-Albala, B., McClendon, M.S., Blanton, S.H., Sacco, R.L., 2010. Genetic linkage of serum homocysteine in Dominican families: The family study of stroke risk and carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke. 41, 1356-1362.
22. De Lorgeril, M., Salen, P., Martin, J.L., Monjaud, I., Delaye, J., Mamelle, N., 1999. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: Final report of the lyon diet heart study. Circulation. 99, 779-785.
23. Erqou, S., Kaptoge, S., Perry, P.L., Di Angelantonio, E., Thompson, A., White, I.R., Marcovina, S.M., Collins, R., Thompson, S.G., Danesh, J., 2009. Emerging risk factors collaboration. lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and nonvascular mortality. JAMA. 302, 412-423.
24. Fletcher, G.F., Balady, G., Blair, S.N., Blumenthal, J., Caspersen, C., Chaitman, B., Epstein, S., Sivarajan Froelicher, E.S., Froelicher, V.F., Pina, I.L., Pollock, M.L., 1996. Statement on exercise: Benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans. A state- ment for health professionals by the committee on exercise and cardiac rehabilitation of the council on clinical cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation. 94, 857-862.
25. Godtfredsen, N.S., Holst, C., Prescott, E., Vestbo, J., Osler, M., 2002. Smoking reduction, smoking cessation, and mortality: A 16-year follow-up of 19,732 men and women from The Copenhagen centre for prospective population studies. Am. J. Epidemiol. 156, 994-1001.
26. Goldstein, J.L., Kita, T., Brown, M.S., 1983. Defective lipoprotein receptors and atherosclerosis. Lessons from an animal counterpart of familial hypercholesterolemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 309, 288-296.
27. Gordon, T., Kannel, W.B., McGee, D., Dawber, T.R., 1974. Death and coronary attacks in men after giving up cigarette smoking. A report from the Framingham study. Lancet. 2, 1345-1348.
28. Grassi, G., Seravalle, G., Quarti-Trevano, F., Dell'Oro, R., Bombelli, M., Mancia, G., 2009. Metabolic syndrome and cardiometabolic risk: An update. Blood Press. 18, 7-16.
29. Haffner, S.M., Lehto, S., Rönnemaa, T., Pyörälä, K., Laakso, M., 1998. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 229-234.
30. Haider, A.W., Larson, M.G., Franklin, S.S., Levy, D., 2003. Framingham Heart Study. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse pressure as predictors of risk for congestive heart failure in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann. Intern. Med. 138, 10-16.
31. Hawe, E., Talmud, P.J., Miller, G.J., Humphries, S.E., 2003. Second Northwick Park Heart Study. Family history is a coronary heart disease risk factor in the second northwick park heart study. Ann. Hum. Genet. 67, 97-106.
32. He, J., Vupputuri, S., Allen, K., Prerost, M.R., Hughes, J., Whelton, P.K., 1999. Passive smoking and the risk of coronary heart disease--a meta- analysis of epidemiologic studies. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 920-926.
33. Hodis, H.N., Mack, W.J., LaBree, L., Selzer, R.H., Liu, C.R., Liu, C.H., Azen, S.P., 1998. The role of carotid arterial intima-media thickness in predicting clinical coronary events. Ann. Intern. Med. 128, 262-269.
34. Jaffer, F.A., O'Donnell, C.J., Larson, M.G., Chan, S.K., Kissinger, K.V., Kupka, M.J., Salton, C., Botnar, R.M., Levy, D., Manning, W.J., 2002. Age and sex distribution of subclinical aortic atherosclerosis: A magnetic resonance imaging examination of the Framingham Heart Study. Arterioscl. Throm. Vas. 22, 849-854.
35. Kannel, W.B., 1996. Blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor: Prevention and treatment. JAMA. 275, 1571-1576.
36. Kaplan, G.A., Keil, J.E., 1993. Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease: A review of the literature. Circulation. 88, 1973-1998.
37. Khot, U.N., Khot, M.B., Bajzer, C.T., Sapp, S.K., Ohman, E.M., Brener, S.J., Ellis, S.G., Lincoff, A.M., Topol, E.J., 2003. Prevalence of conven- tional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 290, 898-904.
38. Kivimäki, M., Leino-Arjas, P., Luukkonen, R., Riihimäki, H., Vahtera, J., Kirjonen, J., 2002. Work stress and risk of cardiovascular mortality: Prospective cohort study of industrial employees. B.M.J. 325, 857.
39. Kraus, W.E., Houmard, J.A., Duscha, B.D., Knetzger, K.J., Wharton, M.B., McCartney, J.S., Bales, C.W., Henes, S., Samsa, G.P., Otvos, J.D., Kulkarni, K.R., Slentz, C.A., 2002. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on plasma lipoproteins. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1483- 1492.
40. Knoops, K.T., de Groot, L.C., Kromhout, D., Perrin, A.E., Moreiras-Varela, O., Menotti, A., van Staveren, W.A., 2004. Mediterranean diet, life- style factors, and 10-year mortality in elderly European men and women: The HALE project. JAMA. 292, 1433-1439.
41. LaRosa, J.C., Grundy, S.M., Waters, D.D., Shear, C., Barter, P., Fruchart, J.C., Gotto, A.M., Greten, H., Kastelein, J.J., Shepherd, J., Wenger, N.K., 2005. Treating to new targets (T.N.T.) Investigators. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 1425-1435.
42. Lee, I.M., Sesso, H.D., Paffenbarger, R.S.Jr., 2000. Physical activity and coronary heart disease risk in men: Does the duration of exercise epi- sodes predict risk? Circulation. 102, 981-986.
43. Lee, M., Saver, J.L., Towfighi, A., Chow, J., Ovbiagele, B., 2011. Efficacy of fibrates for cardiovascular risk reduction in persons with athero- genic dyslipidemia: A meta-analysis. Atherosclerosis. 217, 492-498.
44. Levy, D., Garrison, R.J., Savage, D.D., Kannel, W.B., Castelli, W.P., 1990. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 1561-1566.
45. Lloyd-Jones, D.M., Nam, B.H., D'Agostino, R.B.Sr., Levy, D., Murabito, J.M., Wang, T.J., Wilson, P.W., O'Donnell, C.J., 2004. Parental car- diovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: A prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA. 291, 2204-2211.
46. Lonn, E., Yusuf, S., Arnold, M.J., Sheridan, P., Pogue, J., Micks, M., McQueen, M.J., Probstfield, J., Fodor, G., Held, C., Genest, J.Jr., 2006. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (H.O.P.E.) 2 Investigators. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular dis- ease. N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 1567-1577.
47. Lorenz, M.W., Markus, H.S., Bots, M.L., Rosvall, M., Sitzer, M., 2007. Prediction of clinical cardiovascular events with carotid intima-media thickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 115, 459-467.
48. Maron, D.J., Ridker, P.M., Grundy, S.M., Pearson, T.A., 2008. Preventive strategies for coronary heart disease. In Hurst's the heart, Chapter 51, V. Fuster, R.A., Walsh, R.A., O'Rourke, P., Poole-Wilson, eds. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1203-1234.
49. Mathew, J., Sleight, P., Lonn, E., Johnstone, D., Pogue, J., Yi, Q., Bosch, J., Sussex, B., Probstfield, J., Yusuf, S., 2001. Heart Outcomes Preven- tion Evaluation (H.O.P.E.) Investigators. Reduction of cardiovascular risk by regression of electrocardiographic markers of left ventricular hypertrophy by the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor ramipril. Circulation. 104, 1615-1621.
50. McGill, H.C.Jr., McMahan, C.A., Herderick, E.E., Zieske, A.W., Malcom, G.T., Tracy, R.E., Strong, J.P., 2002. Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (P.D.A.Y.) Research Group. Obesity accelerates the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in young men. Circula- tion. 105, 2712-2718.
51. McMahan, C.A., Gidding, S.S., Viikari, J.S., Juonala, M., Kähönen, M., Hutri-Kähönen, N., Jokinen, E., Taittonen, L., Pietikäinen, M., McGill, H.C.Jr., Raitakari, O.T., 2007. Association of pathobiologic determinants of atherosclerosis in youth risk score and 15-year change in risk score with carotid artery intima-media thickness in young adults (from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 100, 1124-1129.
52. Menown, I.B., Mathew, T.P., Gracey, H.M., Nesbitt, G.S., Murray, P., Young, I.S., Adgey, A.A., 2003. Prediction of recurrent events by D-dimer and inflammatory markers in patients with normal cardiac troponin I study. Prediction of recurrent events by D-dimer and inflammatory markers in patients with normal cardiac troponin I (P.R.E.D.I.C.T.) study. Am. Heart J. 145, 986-992.
53. Mills, J.D., Mansfield, M.W., Grant, P.J., 2002. Tissue plasminogen activator, fibrin D-dimer, and insulin resistance in the relatives of patients with premature coronary artery disease. Arterioscl. Throm. Vas. 22, 704-709.
54. Nambi, V., Chambless, L., Folsom, A.R., He, M., Hu, Y., Mosley, T., Volcik, K., Boerwinkle, E., Ballantyne, C.M., 2010. Carotid intima-media thickness and presence or absence of plaque improves prediction of coronary heart disease risk: The A.R.I.C. (Atherosclerosis Risk In Com- munities) study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 55, 1600-1607.
55. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III), 2002. Third report of the national cholesterol education program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment panel III) final report. Circulation. 106, 3143-3421.
56. Ni, H., Coady, S., Rosamond, W., Folsom, A.R., Chambless, L., Russell, S.D., Sorlie, P.D., 2009. Trends from 1987 to 2004 in sudden death due to coronary heart disease: The atherosclerosis risk in communities (A.R.I.C.) study. Am. Heart J. 157, 46-52.
57. Pearson, T.A., Mensah, G.A., Alexander, R.W., Anderson, J.L., Cannon, R.O.3rd., Criqui, M., Fadl, Y.Y., Fortmann, S.P., Hong, Y., Myers, G.L., Rifai, N., Smith, S.C.Jr., Taubert, K., Tracy, R.P., Vinicor, F.; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; American Heart Association, 2003. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: application to clinical and public health practice: A statement for healthcare profession- als from the centers for disease control and prevention and the American heart association. Circulation. 107, 499-511.
58. Poirier, P., Giles, T.D., Bray, G.A., Hong, Y., Stern, J.S., Pi-Sunyer, F.X., Eckel, R.H., 2006. American heart association; obesity committee of the council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: Pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss: an update of the 1997 American heart association scientific statement on obesity and heart disease from the obesity committee of the council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism. Circulation. 113, 898-918.
59. Pradhan, A.D., LaCroix, A.Z., Langer, R.D., Trevisan, M., Lewis, C.E., Hsia, J.A., Oberman, A., Kotchen, J.M., Ridker, P.M., 2004. Tissue plasminogen activator antigen and D-dimer as markers for atherothrombotic risk among healthy postmenopausal women. Circulation. 110, 292-300.
60. Proietti, R., Mapelli, D., Volpe, B., Bartoletti, S., Sagone, A., Dal Bianco, L., Daliento, L., 2011. Mental stress and ischemic heart disease: Evolv- ing awareness of a complex association. Future Cardiol. 7, 425-437.
61. Raggi, P., Callister, T.Q., Shaw, L.J., 2004. Progression of coronary artery calcium and risk of first myocardial infarction in patients receiving cholesterol-lowering therapy. Arterioscl. Throm. Vas. 24, 1272-1277.
62. Ridker, P.M., Cannon, C.P., Morrow, D., Rifai, N., Rose, L.M., McCabe, C.H., Pfeffer, M.A., Braunwald, E., 2005. Pravastatin or atorvastatin evaluation and infection therapy-thrombolysis in myocardial infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) investigators, C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 352, 20-28.
63. Ridker, P.M., Danielson, E., Fonseca, F.A., Genest, J., Gotto, A.M.Jr., Kastelein, J.J., Koenig, W., Libby, P., Lorenzatti, A.J., MacFadyen, J.G., Nordestgaard, B.G., Shepherd, J., Willerson, J.T., Glynn, R.J., JUPITER Study Group., 2008a. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 2195-2207.
64. Ridker, P.M., Danielson, E., Fonseca, F.A., Genest, J., Gotto, A.M.Jr., Kastelein, J.J., Koenig, W., Libby, P., Lorenzatti, A.J., MacFadyen, J.G., Nordestgaard, B.G., Shepherd, J., Willerson, J.T., Glynn, R.J.; JUPITER Study Group, 2009. Reduction in C-reactive protein and LDL cho- lesterol and cardiovascular event rates after initiation of rosuvastatin: A prospective study of the JUPITER trial. Lancet. 373, 1175-1182.
65. Ridker, P.M., Libby, P., 2008. Risk factors for atherothrombotic disease. In Braunwald’s heart disease, Chapter 39, P. Libby, R.O., Bonow, D.L., Mann, D.P., zipes, Eds. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia: pp. 1003-1026.
66. Ridker, P.M., Paynter, N.P., Rifai, N., Gaziano, J.M., Cook, N.R., 2008b. C-reactive protein and parental history improve global cardiovascular risk prediction: The Reynolds risk score for men. Circulation. 118, 2243-2251.
67. Ridker, P.M., Rifai, N., Pfeffer, M.A., Sacks, F., Braunwald, E., 1999. Long-term effects of pravastatin on plasma concentration of C-reactive protein. The cholesterol and recurrent events (C.A.R.E.) investigators. Circulation. 100, 230-235.
68. Ridker, P.M., Rifai, N., Rose, L., Buring, J.E., Cook, N.R., 2002. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1557-1565.
69. Rissanen, A.M., 1979. Familial aggregation of coronary heart disease in a high incidence area (North Karelia, Finland). Br. Heart J. 42, 294- 303.
70. Rosengren, A., Perk, J., Dallongeville, J., 2009. Prevention of cardiovascular disease. In ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Chapter 12, A.J., Camm, T.F., Luscher, P.W., Serruys, eds. Oxford University Press, New York. 403-435.
71. Rothwell, P.M., Coull, A.J., Giles, M.F., Howard, S.C., Silver, L.E., Bull, L.M., Gutnikov, S.A., Edwards, P., Mant, D., Sackley, C.M., Farmer, A., Sandercock, P.A., Dennis, M.S., Warlow, C.P., Bamford, J.M., Anslow, P., Oxford Vascular Study, 2004. Change in stroke incidence, mortality, case-fatality, severity, and risk factors in Oxfordshire, UK from 1981 to 2004 (Oxford Vascular Study). Lancet. 363, 1925-1933.
72. Rugulies, R., 2002. Depression as a predictor for coronary heart disease. A review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Prev. Med. 23, 51-61.
73. Sacks, F.M., Pfeffer, M.A., Moye, L.A., Rouleau, J.L., Rutherford, J.D., Cole, T.G., Brown, L., Warnica, J.W., Arnold, J.M., Wun, C.C., Davis, B.R., Braunwald, E., 1996. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and recurrent events trial investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 335, 1001-1009.
74. Scanu, A.M., 1992. Lipoprotein(a). A genetic risk factor for premature coronary heart disease. JAMA. 267, 3326-3329.
75. Shah, T., Casas, J.P., Cooper, J.A., Tzoulaki, I., Sofat, R., McCormack, V., Smeeth, L., Deanfield, J.E., Lowe, G.D., Rumley, A., Fowkes, F.G., Humphries, S.E., Hingorani, A.D., 2009. Critical appraisal of CRP measurement for the prediction of coronary heart disease events: New data and systematic review of 31 prospective cohorts. Int. J. Epidemiol. 38, 217-231.
76. Simon, A., Megnien, J.L., Chironi, G., 2010. The value of carotid intima-media thickness for predicting cardiovascular risk. Arterioscl. Throm. Vas. 30, 182-185.
77. Solfrizzi, V., Panza, F., Colacicco, A.M., Capurso, C., D'Introno, A., Torres, F., Baldassarre, G., Capurso, A., 2002. Relation of lipoprotein(a) as coronary risk factor to type 2 diabetes mellitus and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients > or =65 years of age (The Italian Longi- tudinal Study on Aging). Am. J. Cardiol. 89, 825-829.
78. Tabit, C.E., Chung, W.B., Hamburg, N.M., Vita, J.A., 2010. Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Dis. 11, 61-74.
79. Treasure, C.B., Klein, J.L., Weintraub, W.S., Talley, J.D., Stillabower, M.E., Kosinski, A.S., Zhang, J., Boccuzzi, S.J., Cedarholm, J.C., Alexan- der, R.W., 1995. Beneficial effects of cholesterol-lowering therapy on the coronary endothelium in patients with coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 332, 481-487.
80. Turnbull, F., Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration, 2003. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: Results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomised trials. Lancet. 362, 1527-1535.
81. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004. The health consequences of smoking: A report of the surgeon general. Public health service centers for disease control and prevention, national center for chronic disease prevention and health promotion, office on smoking and health. Atlanta, GA: U.S.D.H.H.S.
82. Vasan, R.S., Larson, M.G., Leip, E.P., Evans, J.C., O'Donnell, C.J., Kannel, W.B., Levy, D., 2001. Impact of high-normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 1291-1297.
83. Vaughan, D.E., 2005. PAI-1 and atherothrombosis. J. Thromb. Haemost. 3, 1879-1883.
84. Villines, T.C., Stanek, E.J., Devine, P.J., Turco, M., Miller, M., Weissman, N.J., Griffen, L., Taylor, A.J., 2010. The ARBITER 6-HALTS Trial (Arterial biology for the investigation of the treatment effects of reducing cholesterol 6-HDL and LDL treatment strategies in atherosclero- sis): Final results and the impact of medication adherence, dose, and treatment duration. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 55, 2721-2726.
85. Vucković, B., Derić, M., 2007. Lipoprotein(a): A link between thrombogenesis and atherogenesis. Med. Pregl. 60, 37-41.
86. Wang, X., Qin, X., Demirtas, H., Li, J., Mao, G., Huo, Y., Sun, N., Liu, L., Xu, X., 2007. Efficacy of folic acid supplementation in stroke preven- tion: A meta-analysis. Lancet. 369, 1876-1882.
87. Wilson, K.M., Lentz, S.R., 2005. Mechanisms of the atherogenic effects of elevated homocysteine in experimental models. Semin. Vasc. Med. 5, 163-171.