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THE TURKISH STANCE TOWARD THE US REQUESTS FOR THE 2003 IRAQ WAR: A CASE OF NORMS VERSUS INTERESTS?

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 2, 8 - 47, 01.12.2018

Öz

The rejection of the US pleas for the 2003 Iraq War by the TurkishParliament stands as one of the most controversial, divisive andmuch-debated foreign policy decisions in the Republican historyof Turkey. The pleas of the Bush administration, if fully acceptedand executed by Ankara, were of the kind that would make Turkeypart of the US-led war coalition. Although the Turkish airspacewas opened to the US and British war aircraft and missiles lateron, and limited logistical support was provided during the war,the Parliament’s decision was a rejection of the US demands,which, though not sufficing to prevent the war itself, disruptedthe military plans of the Pentagon, and had significant impact onthe relations between Turkey and Iraq as well as between Turkeyand the US. The parliament’s decision is of paramount importancenot only because of its crucial consequences but also because thedecision-making process preceding it reveals the intense dilemmathat was faced by the Turkish foreign-policy makers vis-à-visnorms versus interests in the implementation, if not formulation,of national interests. The dynamics concerning this dilemma arewell represented by the two main logics of action in InternationalRelations IR : the logic of consequences and the logic of appropriateness. This article examines the Ankara’s decision-makingprocess in the run-up to the 2003 Iraq War from the perspectivesof those two logics with a particular view to the reasons and circumstances associated with the predominance of either of the logics and the shifts between them

Kaynakça

  • Akyüz, Yılmaz and Korkut Boratav, “The making of the Turkish financial crisis”, World Development, Vol. 31, No. 9, 2003.
  • Altunışık, Meliha Benli, “Turkey’s Iraq Policy: The War and Beyond”, Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2006.
  • Bell, Duncan (ed.), Political Thought and International Relations: Variations on a Realist Theme (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
  • Bilâ, Fikret, Ankara’da Irak Savaşları: Sivil Darbe Girişimi ve Gizli Belgelerde 1 Mart Tezkeresi (İstanbul: Güncel Yayıncılık, 2007).
  • Bölükbaşı, Deniz, 1 Mart Vakası: Irak Tezkeresi ve Sonrası (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2008).
  • Brewin, Christopher, “Turkey: Democratic Legitimacy”, in Alex Danchev and John MacMillan (eds.), The Iraq War and Democratic Politics (London: Routledge, 2005).
  • Cockayne, James and David Malone, “Creeping Unilateralism: How Operation Provide Comfort and the No-Fly Zones in 1991 and 1992 Paved the Way for the Iraq Crisis of 2003”, Security Dialogue, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2006.
  • Crawford, Neta C., “Homo Politicus and Argument (Nearly) All the Way Down: Persuasion in Politics”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009.
  • Elster, Jon, “Social norms and economic theory”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1989.
  • Fearon, James and Alexander Wendt, “Rationalism v. Constructivism: A Skeptical View”, in in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds.), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2007).
  • Gause III, F. Gregory, “The Iraq War and American National Security Interests in the Middle East”, in John S. Duffield and Peter J. Dombrowski (eds.), Balance Sheet: The Iraq War and U.S. National Security (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009).
  • Guney, Nursin Atesoglu, “The New Security Environment and Turkey’s ISAF Experience”, in Nursin Atesoglu Guney (ed.), Contentious Issues of Security and the Future of Turkey (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007).
  • Hale, William, Turkish Foreign Policy 1774-2000 (London: Frank Cass, 2002).
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond, “Explaining international politics in the Middle East: The struggle of regional identity and systemic structure”, in Gerd Nonneman (ed.), Analyzing Middle East Foreign Policies and the Relationship with Europe (London: Routledge, 2005).
  • Kardaş, Şaban, “Turkey and the Iraqi Crisis: JDP between Identity and Interest”, in M. Hakan Yavuz (ed.), The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Parti (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 2006).
  • Kesgin, Baris and Juliet Kaarbo, “When and How Parliaments Influence Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey’s Iraq Decision”, International Studies Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010.
  • Lundgren, Åsa, The Unwelcome Neighbour: Turkey’s Kurdish Policy (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007).
  • MacLean, Gerald, Abdullah Gül and the Making of the New Turkey, (London: Oneworld Publications, 2014).
  • March, James G. and Johan P. Olsen, “The Institutional Dynamics and International Political Orders”, International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1998.
  • Oran, Baskın, “Kalkık Horoz”: Çekiç Güç ve Kürt Devleti (Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1998).
  • Price, Richard, “Moral limit and possibility in world politics”, in Richard M. Price (ed.), Moral Limit and Possibility in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
  • Robins, Philip, Suits and Uniforms: Turkish Foreign Policy since the Cold War (London: Hurst and Company, 2003).
  • Rosen, Gary (ed.), The Right War? The Conservative Debate on Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
  • Schulz, Martin, “Logic of Consequences and Logic of Appropriateness”, in Mie Augier and David J. Teece (eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
  • Sever, Ahmet, Abdullah Gül ile 12 Yıl: Yaşadım, Gördüm, Yazdım (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2015).
  • Shannon, Vaughn P., “Norms are what states make of them: the political psychology of norm violation”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2000.
  • Shannon, Vaughn P. and Jonathan W. Keller, “Leadership style and international norm violation: The case of the Iraq war”, Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2007.
  • Snidal, Duncan, “Rational Choice and International Relations” in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds.), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2007).
  • Taydaş, Zeynep and Özgür Özdamar, “A Divided Government, an Ideological Parliament, and an Insecure Leader: Turkey’s Indecision about Joining the Iraq War”, Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2013.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 15 Jan. 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 1 March 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 20 March 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 11 Dec. 2007.
  • The JDP’s 2002 election platform available at https://acikerisim.tbmm.gov.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11543/954/2003 04063.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (28 August 2018).
  • The First Turkish National Programme for the Adoption of the Aquis, available at https://www.ab.gov.tr/195_en.html (August 14, 2018).
  • Waltz, Kenneth N., “Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory”, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1990.
  • Yetkin, Murat, Tezkere: Irak Krizinin Gerçek Öyküsü (İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2004).
  • Press Reports (from printed and internet sources)
  • “ABD’ye açık mesaj”, Yeni Şafak, February 19, 2003.
  • “ABD’yle kesintisiz pazarlık”, Milliyet, February 8, 2003.
  • “ABD kredisinin kontrolü 2004’e kadar IMF’de olsun”, Milliyet, February 27, 2003.
  • Abramowitz, Morton, “Turkey and Iraq, Act II”, Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2003.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Başbakan Gül’ün penceresinden”, Milliyet, December 28, 2002.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Strateji”, Milliyet, January 16, 2003.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Gül’ün umudu ve üç hedefi”, Milliyet, January 21, 2003.
  • “Bakanlar imzaladı söz artık Meclis’in”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003.
  • “Belge olmadan asla”, Yeni Şafak, February 20, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Amerika’ya Irak mesajı”, Milliyet, January 14, 2002.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “6 Müslüman ülkenin sözcüsü olacağız…”, Milliyet, January 15, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Müslüman liderleri İstanbul’a bekliyor”, Milliyet, January 17, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Taha Yasin’in gizli ziyareti”, Milliyet, February 7, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Ankara Barzani’den rahatsız”, Milliyet, February 21, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Uçaksavarlar kime?”, Milliyet, February 26, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Ankara’nın iki kuşkusu”, Milliyet, March 1, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Tezkerenin geçmemesi bir anayasal kazadır”, Milliyet, October 1, 2007.
  • Birand, Mehmet Ali, “Irak olayı düzeni değiştirecek”, Posta, January 9, 2003.
  • Borger, Julian, et al., “Another step towards war”, The Guardian, January 28, 2003.
  • “CHP, tezkereye ‘ret’ oyu verecek. Baykal: 81 yıl sonra yabancı ordu geliyor”, February 27, 2003, http://www.tgrthaber.com.tr/dunya/-105328.html (10 Dec. 2009).
  • Çetin, Bilal and Sami Gökçe, “Meclis’ten iki ayrı yetki istenecek”, Yeni Şafak, February 2, 2003.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “AKP iktidarına ABD’den bakışlar”, Milliyet, November 4, 2002.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “Saddam sonrasını konuşanlar”, Milliyet, January 27, 2003.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “’Tam tezkere olmazsa, para da gelmez’”, Milliyet, March 19, 2003.
  • Dündar, Uğur, “1 Mart Tezkeresi TSK’nın PKK’ya operasyon yapmasını yasaklamıştı ..”, Sözcü, March 4, 2016, http://www.sozcu.com.tr/2016/yazarlar/ugur-dundar/1-mart-tezkeresi- tsknin-pkkya-operasyon-yapmasini-yasaklamisti-1120174/ (27 May 2016)
  • Erdem, Suna, “Ankara vote clears way for U.S. to use military bases”, The Times, February 7, 2003.
  • “Erdoğan: Ölümün pazarlığı olmaz”, Milliyet, December 28, 2002.
  • Ergün, Elçin and Önder Yılmaz, “Tezkere daraldı”, Milliyet, March 19, 2003.
  • Filkins, Dexter, “Top politician indicates Turkey may join U.S. effort against Iraq”, New York Times, February 5, 2003.
  • Filkins, Dexter, “Turkish deputies refuse to accept American troops”, New York Times, March 2, 2003.
  • Gordon, Michael R., “U.S. is pressing for Turks’ help in move on Iraq”, New York Times, November 28, 2002.
  • Gordon, Michael R., “U.S. presses Turkey’s case on Europe and Cyprus”, New York Times, December 3, 2002.
  • “‘Grup kararı almayacağız’”, Milliyet, February 24, 2003.
  • Hatısaru, Songül, “Irak hem risk hem fırsat”, Milliyet, January 12, 2003.
  • Hatısaru, Songül, “Bütçe de IMF ile anlaşma da netleşmedi”, Milliyet, February 17, 2003.
  • “İkna için 3 uyarı”, Hürriyet, February 26, 2003, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/ikna-icin-3-uyari-130336 (10 Dec. 2009).
  • Karakuş, Abdullah, “’Operasyon bir yıl sonraya ertelenmeli’”, Milliyet, January 16, 2003.
  • Kinzer, Stephen, “Forget Hussein. Iraq’s Kurds are free already”, New York Times, March 2, 2003.
  • Kohen, Sami, “Mesele sadece Irak değil…”, Milliyet, December 26, 2002.
  • Sami Kohen, “Kuzey Irak’ta yeni tehlike”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003
  • Loyd, Anthony and Suna Erdem, “Kurds urge U.S. to deter Turks”, The Times, February 26, 2003.
  • MacAskill, Ewan, et al., “Is Saddam hiding something? Blix gives his verdict on Iraqi weapons”, The Guardian, January 28, 2003.
  • “Meşruiyet olmadan tezkere göndermeyin”, Yeni Şafak, February 25, 2003.
  • “MGK, Irak’ı masaya yatırdı: Esnek harekat kararı”, Milliyet, 28 Aralık 2002.
  • Milli Güvenlik Konseyi Basın Bildirisi, 31 Ocak 2003
  • https://www.mgk.gov.tr/index.php/2003-yili-ocak-ayi-toplantisi (9 August 2018).
  • Oğuz, Serhat, “Tarikat AKP’den sağduyu istedi”, Milliyet, February 28, 2003.
  • Özbey, İpek, “Hâlâ 1 Mart tezkeresinin bedelini ödüyoruz”, Hürriyet, October 10, 2017.
  • “Savaş yaklaşıyor, dışında kalamayız”, Yeni Şafak, February 5, 2003.
  • “’Savaşanlara yardımcı olmalıyız’”, Milliyet, March 6, 2003.
  • Sazak, Derya, “Yabancı asker kabulü radikal bir değişimdir”, Milliyet, January 13, 2003.
  • “Sezer: Yeni BM kararı şart”, Evrensel, 18 Feb. 2003, https://www.evrensel.net/haber/138982/sezer-yeni-bm-karari-sart (25 Dec. 2009).
  • “Sinir geren pazarlık”, Milliyet, February 20, 2003.
  • Şık, Barkın, “Fenerbahçeliler tezkere bekliyor”, Milliyet, February 18, 2003.
  • Şık, Barkın and Önder Yılmaz, “Sezer: Karar artık Meclis’in”, Milliyet, March 1, 2003.
  • “Tezkereye ‘hayır’ çağrısı”, Yeni Şafak, February 27, 2003.
  • “Totaliter bir rejimin yanında yer almayın”, Milliyet, January 14, 2003.
  • Webster, Philip and Rory Watson, “Bush angers Europe as Ankara is rebuffed”, The Times, 14 Dec. 2002.
  • Weisman, Steven R., “Powell patches things up, as Turkey consents to help”, New York Times, April 3, 2003.
  • Safire, William, “The Northern Front”, New York Times, January 16, 2003.
  • Toprak, Veli, “Bush sıkıştı”, Yeni Şafak, March 14, 2003.
  • “Yalçınbayır direndi, Gül imza istedi”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003.
  • Yılmaz, Önder, “Tüzmen’den Bağdat’a ‘Genç Osman’ çıkarması”, Milliyet, January 11, 2003.

ABD’NİN 2003 IRAK SAVAŞI İÇİN İSTEKLERİ KARŞISINDA TÜRKİYE’NİN TUTUMU: NORMLAR-ÇIKARLAR KARŞITLIĞI VAKASI MI?

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 2, 8 - 47, 01.12.2018

Öz

2003 Irak Savaşı için ABD’nin taleplerinin Türk Parlamentosu tarafından reddedilmesi TürkiyeCumhuriyet tarihinin en çok tartışmaya yol açmış, ihtilaf çıkarmış ve çok müzakere edilmiş dışpolitika kararlarından birisidir. Bush yönetiminin talepleri, şayet Ankara tarafından tamamenkabul edilmiş ve uygulanmış olsaydı, Türkiye’yi ABD liderliğindeki savaş koalisyonunun tarafıyapacak nitelikteydi. Türk hava sahası ABD ve Britanya savaş uçaklarına ve füzelerine sonradanaçılıp savaş esnasında sınırlı lojistik yardım yapılmış olsa da, Parlamento’nun kararı ABD’ninisteklerinin reddi anlamına geliyordu. Bu karar, savaşı önlemeye yetmese de Pentagon’un askeriplanlarını bozdu ve hem Türkiye-ABD ilişkileri hem de Türkiye-Irak ilişkileri üstünde önemlietkisi oldu. Parlamento’nun kararı sadece önemli sonuçlarından ötürü değil aynı zamanda öncesindeki karar-alma sürecinin Türk dış politika yapıcılarının ulusal çıkarların tanımlanmasındaolmasa bile uygulanmasında karşılaştıkları norm-çıkar ikilemini ortaya koymasından ötürü deçok önemlidir. Bu ikileme ilişkin dinamikler Uluslararası İlişkiler’in iki ana davranış mantığı tarafından ortaya konmaktadır: sonuç mantığı ve uygunluk mantığı. Bu makale Ankara’nın 2003Irak Savaşı’na giden dönemde karar-alma mekanizmasını bu iki mantığın bakış açısından, özellikle herhangi birinin ne sebeplerle ve hangi şartlar altında baskın hale geldiği ve yerini diğerinebıraktığı sorularını dikkate alarak incelemektedir

Kaynakça

  • Akyüz, Yılmaz and Korkut Boratav, “The making of the Turkish financial crisis”, World Development, Vol. 31, No. 9, 2003.
  • Altunışık, Meliha Benli, “Turkey’s Iraq Policy: The War and Beyond”, Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2006.
  • Bell, Duncan (ed.), Political Thought and International Relations: Variations on a Realist Theme (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
  • Bilâ, Fikret, Ankara’da Irak Savaşları: Sivil Darbe Girişimi ve Gizli Belgelerde 1 Mart Tezkeresi (İstanbul: Güncel Yayıncılık, 2007).
  • Bölükbaşı, Deniz, 1 Mart Vakası: Irak Tezkeresi ve Sonrası (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2008).
  • Brewin, Christopher, “Turkey: Democratic Legitimacy”, in Alex Danchev and John MacMillan (eds.), The Iraq War and Democratic Politics (London: Routledge, 2005).
  • Cockayne, James and David Malone, “Creeping Unilateralism: How Operation Provide Comfort and the No-Fly Zones in 1991 and 1992 Paved the Way for the Iraq Crisis of 2003”, Security Dialogue, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2006.
  • Crawford, Neta C., “Homo Politicus and Argument (Nearly) All the Way Down: Persuasion in Politics”, Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2009.
  • Elster, Jon, “Social norms and economic theory”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1989.
  • Fearon, James and Alexander Wendt, “Rationalism v. Constructivism: A Skeptical View”, in in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds.), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2007).
  • Gause III, F. Gregory, “The Iraq War and American National Security Interests in the Middle East”, in John S. Duffield and Peter J. Dombrowski (eds.), Balance Sheet: The Iraq War and U.S. National Security (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009).
  • Guney, Nursin Atesoglu, “The New Security Environment and Turkey’s ISAF Experience”, in Nursin Atesoglu Guney (ed.), Contentious Issues of Security and the Future of Turkey (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007).
  • Hale, William, Turkish Foreign Policy 1774-2000 (London: Frank Cass, 2002).
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond, “Explaining international politics in the Middle East: The struggle of regional identity and systemic structure”, in Gerd Nonneman (ed.), Analyzing Middle East Foreign Policies and the Relationship with Europe (London: Routledge, 2005).
  • Kardaş, Şaban, “Turkey and the Iraqi Crisis: JDP between Identity and Interest”, in M. Hakan Yavuz (ed.), The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Parti (Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 2006).
  • Kesgin, Baris and Juliet Kaarbo, “When and How Parliaments Influence Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey’s Iraq Decision”, International Studies Perspectives, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010.
  • Lundgren, Åsa, The Unwelcome Neighbour: Turkey’s Kurdish Policy (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007).
  • MacLean, Gerald, Abdullah Gül and the Making of the New Turkey, (London: Oneworld Publications, 2014).
  • March, James G. and Johan P. Olsen, “The Institutional Dynamics and International Political Orders”, International Organization, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1998.
  • Oran, Baskın, “Kalkık Horoz”: Çekiç Güç ve Kürt Devleti (Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1998).
  • Price, Richard, “Moral limit and possibility in world politics”, in Richard M. Price (ed.), Moral Limit and Possibility in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
  • Robins, Philip, Suits and Uniforms: Turkish Foreign Policy since the Cold War (London: Hurst and Company, 2003).
  • Rosen, Gary (ed.), The Right War? The Conservative Debate on Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
  • Schulz, Martin, “Logic of Consequences and Logic of Appropriateness”, in Mie Augier and David J. Teece (eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
  • Sever, Ahmet, Abdullah Gül ile 12 Yıl: Yaşadım, Gördüm, Yazdım (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2015).
  • Shannon, Vaughn P., “Norms are what states make of them: the political psychology of norm violation”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2000.
  • Shannon, Vaughn P. and Jonathan W. Keller, “Leadership style and international norm violation: The case of the Iraq war”, Foreign Policy Analysis, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2007.
  • Snidal, Duncan, “Rational Choice and International Relations” in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds.), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2007).
  • Taydaş, Zeynep and Özgür Özdamar, “A Divided Government, an Ideological Parliament, and an Insecure Leader: Turkey’s Indecision about Joining the Iraq War”, Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 94, No. 1, 2013.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 15 Jan. 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 1 March 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 20 March 2003.
  • TBMM Tutanak Dergisi (Minutes of the TGNA Debates), 11 Dec. 2007.
  • The JDP’s 2002 election platform available at https://acikerisim.tbmm.gov.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11543/954/2003 04063.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (28 August 2018).
  • The First Turkish National Programme for the Adoption of the Aquis, available at https://www.ab.gov.tr/195_en.html (August 14, 2018).
  • Waltz, Kenneth N., “Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory”, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1990.
  • Yetkin, Murat, Tezkere: Irak Krizinin Gerçek Öyküsü (İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2004).
  • Press Reports (from printed and internet sources)
  • “ABD’ye açık mesaj”, Yeni Şafak, February 19, 2003.
  • “ABD’yle kesintisiz pazarlık”, Milliyet, February 8, 2003.
  • “ABD kredisinin kontrolü 2004’e kadar IMF’de olsun”, Milliyet, February 27, 2003.
  • Abramowitz, Morton, “Turkey and Iraq, Act II”, Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2003.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Başbakan Gül’ün penceresinden”, Milliyet, December 28, 2002.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Strateji”, Milliyet, January 16, 2003.
  • Akyol, Taha, “Gül’ün umudu ve üç hedefi”, Milliyet, January 21, 2003.
  • “Bakanlar imzaladı söz artık Meclis’in”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003.
  • “Belge olmadan asla”, Yeni Şafak, February 20, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Amerika’ya Irak mesajı”, Milliyet, January 14, 2002.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “6 Müslüman ülkenin sözcüsü olacağız…”, Milliyet, January 15, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Müslüman liderleri İstanbul’a bekliyor”, Milliyet, January 17, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Taha Yasin’in gizli ziyareti”, Milliyet, February 7, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Ankara Barzani’den rahatsız”, Milliyet, February 21, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Uçaksavarlar kime?”, Milliyet, February 26, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Ankara’nın iki kuşkusu”, Milliyet, March 1, 2003.
  • Bilâ, Fikret, “Tezkerenin geçmemesi bir anayasal kazadır”, Milliyet, October 1, 2007.
  • Birand, Mehmet Ali, “Irak olayı düzeni değiştirecek”, Posta, January 9, 2003.
  • Borger, Julian, et al., “Another step towards war”, The Guardian, January 28, 2003.
  • “CHP, tezkereye ‘ret’ oyu verecek. Baykal: 81 yıl sonra yabancı ordu geliyor”, February 27, 2003, http://www.tgrthaber.com.tr/dunya/-105328.html (10 Dec. 2009).
  • Çetin, Bilal and Sami Gökçe, “Meclis’ten iki ayrı yetki istenecek”, Yeni Şafak, February 2, 2003.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “AKP iktidarına ABD’den bakışlar”, Milliyet, November 4, 2002.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “Saddam sonrasını konuşanlar”, Milliyet, January 27, 2003.
  • Çongar, Yasemin, “’Tam tezkere olmazsa, para da gelmez’”, Milliyet, March 19, 2003.
  • Dündar, Uğur, “1 Mart Tezkeresi TSK’nın PKK’ya operasyon yapmasını yasaklamıştı ..”, Sözcü, March 4, 2016, http://www.sozcu.com.tr/2016/yazarlar/ugur-dundar/1-mart-tezkeresi- tsknin-pkkya-operasyon-yapmasini-yasaklamisti-1120174/ (27 May 2016)
  • Erdem, Suna, “Ankara vote clears way for U.S. to use military bases”, The Times, February 7, 2003.
  • “Erdoğan: Ölümün pazarlığı olmaz”, Milliyet, December 28, 2002.
  • Ergün, Elçin and Önder Yılmaz, “Tezkere daraldı”, Milliyet, March 19, 2003.
  • Filkins, Dexter, “Top politician indicates Turkey may join U.S. effort against Iraq”, New York Times, February 5, 2003.
  • Filkins, Dexter, “Turkish deputies refuse to accept American troops”, New York Times, March 2, 2003.
  • Gordon, Michael R., “U.S. is pressing for Turks’ help in move on Iraq”, New York Times, November 28, 2002.
  • Gordon, Michael R., “U.S. presses Turkey’s case on Europe and Cyprus”, New York Times, December 3, 2002.
  • “‘Grup kararı almayacağız’”, Milliyet, February 24, 2003.
  • Hatısaru, Songül, “Irak hem risk hem fırsat”, Milliyet, January 12, 2003.
  • Hatısaru, Songül, “Bütçe de IMF ile anlaşma da netleşmedi”, Milliyet, February 17, 2003.
  • “İkna için 3 uyarı”, Hürriyet, February 26, 2003, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/ikna-icin-3-uyari-130336 (10 Dec. 2009).
  • Karakuş, Abdullah, “’Operasyon bir yıl sonraya ertelenmeli’”, Milliyet, January 16, 2003.
  • Kinzer, Stephen, “Forget Hussein. Iraq’s Kurds are free already”, New York Times, March 2, 2003.
  • Kohen, Sami, “Mesele sadece Irak değil…”, Milliyet, December 26, 2002.
  • Sami Kohen, “Kuzey Irak’ta yeni tehlike”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003
  • Loyd, Anthony and Suna Erdem, “Kurds urge U.S. to deter Turks”, The Times, February 26, 2003.
  • MacAskill, Ewan, et al., “Is Saddam hiding something? Blix gives his verdict on Iraqi weapons”, The Guardian, January 28, 2003.
  • “Meşruiyet olmadan tezkere göndermeyin”, Yeni Şafak, February 25, 2003.
  • “MGK, Irak’ı masaya yatırdı: Esnek harekat kararı”, Milliyet, 28 Aralık 2002.
  • Milli Güvenlik Konseyi Basın Bildirisi, 31 Ocak 2003
  • https://www.mgk.gov.tr/index.php/2003-yili-ocak-ayi-toplantisi (9 August 2018).
  • Oğuz, Serhat, “Tarikat AKP’den sağduyu istedi”, Milliyet, February 28, 2003.
  • Özbey, İpek, “Hâlâ 1 Mart tezkeresinin bedelini ödüyoruz”, Hürriyet, October 10, 2017.
  • “Savaş yaklaşıyor, dışında kalamayız”, Yeni Şafak, February 5, 2003.
  • “’Savaşanlara yardımcı olmalıyız’”, Milliyet, March 6, 2003.
  • Sazak, Derya, “Yabancı asker kabulü radikal bir değişimdir”, Milliyet, January 13, 2003.
  • “Sezer: Yeni BM kararı şart”, Evrensel, 18 Feb. 2003, https://www.evrensel.net/haber/138982/sezer-yeni-bm-karari-sart (25 Dec. 2009).
  • “Sinir geren pazarlık”, Milliyet, February 20, 2003.
  • Şık, Barkın, “Fenerbahçeliler tezkere bekliyor”, Milliyet, February 18, 2003.
  • Şık, Barkın and Önder Yılmaz, “Sezer: Karar artık Meclis’in”, Milliyet, March 1, 2003.
  • “Tezkereye ‘hayır’ çağrısı”, Yeni Şafak, February 27, 2003.
  • “Totaliter bir rejimin yanında yer almayın”, Milliyet, January 14, 2003.
  • Webster, Philip and Rory Watson, “Bush angers Europe as Ankara is rebuffed”, The Times, 14 Dec. 2002.
  • Weisman, Steven R., “Powell patches things up, as Turkey consents to help”, New York Times, April 3, 2003.
  • Safire, William, “The Northern Front”, New York Times, January 16, 2003.
  • Toprak, Veli, “Bush sıkıştı”, Yeni Şafak, March 14, 2003.
  • “Yalçınbayır direndi, Gül imza istedi”, Milliyet, February 25, 2003.
  • Yılmaz, Önder, “Tüzmen’den Bağdat’a ‘Genç Osman’ çıkarması”, Milliyet, January 11, 2003.
Toplam 101 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Research Article
Yazarlar

Sevilay Z. Aksoy Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 1 Aralık 2018
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2018 Cilt: 10 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Aksoy, Sevilay Z. “ABD’NİN 2003 IRAK SAVAŞI İÇİN İSTEKLERİ KARŞISINDA TÜRKİYE’NİN TUTUMU: NORMLAR-ÇIKARLAR KARŞITLIĞI VAKASI MI?”. Ortadoğu Etütleri 10, sy. 2 (Aralık 2018): 8-47.

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